Russian Icons: Not Just Pretty Pictures

The icon was first introduced into Russia at the turn of the first millenium, after the great prince of Kiev, Vladimir, decreed that all the people of the realm should be baptized as Christians. The country accepted the religion with zeal. The Russian Church was based on the designs of the European Church, and many Greek and Byzantine artisans were brought to Russia by Vladimir and his son, Yaroslav. Many churches were built in the first hundred years of Russian Christianity, some of them very large scale, and the interiors were decorated in the Byzantine manner with mosaics and frescoes.

From the Greek work "eikon," which means "image," comes the word "icon," or "eekona" in Russian. The first icons to reach Russia were imported from Greece, where the style had developed from Hellenistic portraiture and before that, Faiyumic portraiture. During the thirteenth century there was an upsurge of the arts in Kievan Rus and the icons being produced in Russian began to take on distinct characteristics and an ideology which set them apart from the original on which they were based, such as characters with champagne-bottle-shaped bodies and the use of bright colors.

However, these icons were not merely works of art. They served spiritual, education, and even political purposes as well.

The icons themselves were carefully crafted by artists who had dedicated their lives to icon-making. These men were expected to live rigorously by Church standards and, when successful, richly rewarded. Until the seventeenth century the icons went unsigned and often times were worked upon by several different artists in an assembly-line fashion.

The main component of the icon was a panel of wood, either lime, birch, alder, or oak, and in later times, cypress. The early icons were a single large panel which was hollowed out in the center, leaving a raised boarder around the edges. In later times the boarder was simply painted on. When more than one panel was fitted together, the boards would be re-enforced with horizontal slats or spleens.

The face of the panel was covered with canvas and gesso. After it had dried, the surface was sanded and polished until shiny. The painting was done in tempera and egg yoke, a medium which originated in the tombs of ancient Egypt.

Before being painted, the picture would be outlined in cinnabar, based on a drawing from Church archives which was deemed to be an "original" and indicative of how all other icons depicting the same figure should be drawn. These were gathered into manuals and passed from one generation to the next with great reverence; they contained not just general outlines but the specific features of each figure which embodied a national mentality identified with that Biblical character or saint. Physical characteristics such as facial features, distinctive marks, color and styling of clothing, and attributes were recorded in the manuals. The saints gained personality in the eyes of the beholders, who began to feel that those depicted were a constantly present member of the family.

The artists who worked on icons often specialized in one of three areas, "face painting," "pre-face painting," or "calligraphy." The "pre-face painter" was responsible for painting the figures and backgrounds. The "face painter" was a revered position given only to the finest artists, who would paint the faces and sometimes the hands. The "calligrapher" adorned the icon with the saint’s name and completed the boarder of the icon. The areas of the icon which were to be gilded were done so with incredibly thin sheets of gold leaf and glue until the late sixteenth century, when a method of painting gold powder was introduced. The icons were also decorated with jewels, cloisonné enamels, and gold or metal haloes. The icon known as the Virgin of Kazan depicts Mary and the Christ child dressed entirely in pearls and their haloes made of colored mosaics.

The painting itself was a process known as "revealing." It was believed that icons were not works of art made by men, but sacred doors to Heaven opened through the grace of God. This, and the assembly-line manner in which many icons were assembled, focused on the icon itself as opposed to the artist. Very few icons were signed by the artists who created them—to do so would have been to claim that their own influence was greater than that of God.

The paint was not applied in a single coat but in many thin, translucent layers, lending the finished picture subtle shadow and tint which allowed for exquisite sensitivity to be shown in its subjects. They were once described as having been "painted with smoke." This style also invoked the feeling of a vision or visitation, increasing the sense of a dialogue between the icon and the viewer.

Divine presence was also invoked by the composition of the icons. Many saints were depicted with their feet turned out and dangling in the air as if they were floating in space above the faithful. The arrangement of scenes shown in the icons was standardized, but this did not reduce their creativity or uniqueness. From the beginning, the figures depicted were taller and thinner and often had willowy, curved limbs. This gave them an appearance of swaying, which became one of the hallmarks of Russian icons. They emphasized elegance over grandeur and used brighter colors than the icons in contemporary countries.

One particular arrangement showed Mary holding the baby Jesus. Considered a masterpiece and national treasure, the "Virgin of Vladimir" – which was actually crafted in Constantinople – made popular this style, known as "tenderness" for the emotion the icon radiates. Other popular subjects were scenes from the Old Testament and the Gospels, and the stories surrounding the lives of saints.

Some icons showed not just one image but a series of images (either sharing the panel or painted into smaller boxes around the main image) which told a story. For a mostly illiterate people, this was a powerful way to learn about Christianity, and the format gained it own dictionary of symbols which the people understood. For example, a saint touching his lips would symbolize silence. Colors, too, had their symbolic meanings, as well as animals and every day objects. Both Biblical and historical scenes were shown in a language accessible to the people, and their understanding of past events taught them "the eternal significance of evangelical events re-enacted in the liturgy."

Icons were considered to have many powers, healing, protection, even the power of conversion. If a viewer felt that he was looking into a depicted saint’s life, so too might he be able to connect more intimately with that saint through prayer, or be convinced of the glory of God through art.

After the icon had been painted, labeled, and embellished with precious stones or metals, it was left to stand while the paint dried. The panel was then painted with linseed oil varnish and allowed to dry for several more months – ensuring the complete drying of the varnish – before being taken to the church to be blessed.

The icons were displayed both in churches and in private homes. In churches, they were displayed in an iconostasis, a large screen which partitioned the church. It was made up of tiers of icons set into a connecting wooden frame. Each tier had its own name and contained a specific regiment of icons. There were usually four or five tiers which spanned entire walls.

At this time in history, many people were living peasant lives in the countryside and could travel to churches only intermittently. In order to bring religion into their homes, they created a "beautiful corner" (also known as the "red corner;" the words for "beautiful" and "red" have the same root in Russian) in their huts. It was always created in the corner of the room where the morning sun’s first rays landed, and across the room from the giant family stove. The corner functioned as a family altar and held a chair reserved for special guests.

Additionally, during the Tatar Yoke, the Moscow princes used icons to protect and rally the sprit of the Russian people. By producing traditional Russian scenes, for example, of Boris and Gleb, the Russian martyrs, they showed the people that they desired a return to Russian unity. For the people, this was convincing enough for them to lend their support to the Moscow princes in gaining the country’s freedom. Significantly later on, the Romanov dynasty supported the painting of icons which showed images of Rusian unity as well.

The saints played an important part in the everyday lives of the Russian people. Their feast days helped dictate the naming of children and created a calendar for the people to follow. Because each saint’s image was described in the icon-maker’s manual, each depiction resembled another to the extent that the saint could be easily recognized. This gave the effect of a continual presence and roundness of character to each. Each saint was a patron and could be prayed to for protection or intervention.

Icons were created in Russia from the turn of the first millenium onward. They brought spirituality into the homes of Russian peasants and nobility alike, built a national religious identity and forged political unity, educated people in religion and history, and have left a record of Russia’s Christian development as well as its art history. Today they are cherished in museums and private collections around the world.

Bibliography

Russian Icons, Father Vladimir Ivanov, Rissoli International Publications, New York 1987

Moscow School of Painting, Viktor Lazarev, Iskusstvo Publishers, Moscow 1971

The History and Art of the Russian Icon, Lucy Maxym, Siamese Imports Company 1986

Russian Icons, Konrad Onasch, Phaidon Press Limited, Oxford 1977

Russian Icons, David Talbot Rice, King Penguin Books, London and New York 1947

Russian Icons, Tamara Talbot Rice, Spring Books, London 1963