In Rome stands a column, 38 meters high, erected by the Emperor Trajan to commemorate his victories over the Dacians in A.D. 101-102 and 105-106. Ascending the column in a slow spiral, is a sculptured band; on this band is depicted the roman legion at work. And it is not simply the work of war. For the Roman legionary was the backbone of the empire, warrior and handyman, able to build cities, as well as destroy them.
The Roman army, during the first three centuries of the Empire, was divided into legions and auxillaries. The legions recruited from the descendants of the early citizens and farmers who had left the plough to fight for Rome, while the auxillaries drew from subjected peoples. The legion was known by a number, for instance, Caesar's famous 10th Legion. It was composed of about 5000 heavy infantry The auxillaries were divided into cohorts 500 to 1000 infantrymen strong, or into cavalry troops, called alae.
They were commanded by Roman officers, either prefects or tribunes. And although they recieved less pay than a legionary, and served longer, they recieved citizenship on discharge.
Higher in status than both the legions and the auxillaries was the Praetorian Guard, the Emperor's personal body guard. They served their master in Rome, and accompanied him on compaign, and exerted their power over the empire by occasionally raising one claimant or another to the imperial seat. The rest of the army was stationed on the frontiers. Here the legions were grouped with the auxillaries, and commanded by the governor of the province.
From a very early date, the legion, or levy or "gathering of the clans", had become the main military unit of the Roman army. Recruited from the burgesses of Rome - those who belonged to one of the original Roman tribes, and who alone had the right to bear arms - they formed the "spear-armed body of warriors upon whom the blessing of Mars was invoked". At the time, service in war was the only way to achieve civic honours; thus, it was these men of hereditary valour who shaped the distinct character of the Roman people.
Initially the legion was nothing more than a phalanx armed in the traditional Doric style. It comprised 3000 - 4000 soldiers divided into eight ranks, the first six, called hoplites formed the heavy infantry and the last two, called velites, or lightly armed, were used primarily for skirmishing. Like the Greek phalanx before it, the early legion's main tactical principle was one of shock. It had no reserves. And as it was strengthened by a mere handful of cavalry, it had little ability to pursue an opponent. The Roman Army's great strength lay in the patriotism and rigid discipline characteristic of it's people, and to the great amount of attention paid to training and drill.
The Reforms of Camillus
This very primitive legion was completely transformed, according to tradition, by Marcus Furius Camillus, hero of the Gallic wars, c. 390 B.C., and one of Romes most famous generals. He threw away arrangement by census, and replaced it with arrangement by age, thus making more of individual capacity and experience. To gain the elasticity required to meet the highly mobile Gauls, the phalangial legion was changed. The hoplites, or heavy infantry, were organized anew, into three distinct groups, while the velites, still maintained but recruited from the old census system, played only a minor role in the new legions.
Each of these divisions was organized into ten self-contained units called manipuli('handfuls'), or companies, the first two of 120 men each, the third of 60. A cohort consisted of one company of each, 120 velites, plus a squadron(turma) of cavalry: in all, 450 men. The legion consisted of ten cohorts. In battle formation the companies were drawn up chequer-wise, so that the division covered the gaps of the first, and the third those of the second. The 10 cavalry squadrons were bundled together to form an ala, or wing.
The armament of the legionary is fully described by Polybius. A velite carried a short thrusting sword(gladius), a spear(pilum), and a target(parma). The spear of the legionary was for throwing; it had an iron head fixed into a wooden shaft. The weight of the iron kept the spear in a straight line when thrown, with a killing range of about thirty yards. The head was narrowed at one point, so that the spear bent on impact, making it useless to the enemy. The sword was a cut and thrust weapon, used for close quarters fighting. The hastati were also armed with a gladius, and two spears. They carried a large semi-circular shield(scutum), 30 inches wide and 48 inches long, made of two layers of wood glued together, bound with iron and covered in hide. They wore a brass helmet and greaves, and a brass plate(pectorale) on their breasts; if they were richer, they might wear a cuirass(lorica). The principes and triarii were armed in a similar manner, save that they carried a longer spear, called a hastae.
Marius' Mules
The legion developed by Camillus, and perfected over two centuries in a series of wars that saw Rome rise to be the masters of the Mediteranean, underwent a further change around the turn of the first century B.C. In 112 BC the Romans in southern Gaul were defeated by a combined force of Cimbri and Teutones. These were migrating Germanic tribes, and they defied all attempts by the Romans to expel them. In 105 they crushed another Roman army. The Senate, in desperation, called upon Marius, victor of the Jugurthine War of 112-106BC, which allowed Rome to absorb Numidia. Under Marius, the Roman legion was completely transformed.
The old three line system and the companies were abandoned in favour of the ten cohorts, thus simplifying the general structure of the legion. The distinction between the various kinds of soldiers disappeared, although the names velites, hastati, principes and triarii continued in use. Each cohort had about 480 men, divided into 6 centuries of approximately 80 men. The soldiers were armed with a helmet, mail shirt, shield, sword and 2 spears, one light, one heavy. Each legionary was expected to carry all his additional cooking and entrenching equipment. This earned them the name of "Marius' Mules." The new army was toughened by long marches and camp construction, and when the great general finally considered it prepared, he led it against the Germans, with startling success. Through to the collapse of the Empire in the West in 495 A.D., the 80 man century became the main tactical unit, and the centurions who commanded them were the backbone of the legions.
and perhaps a 120 horse, used for scouting and sending dispatches, and commanded by a legate, Legatus Augusti legionis(commander-in-chief), a senator nominated to command by the Emperor himself, 6 tribunes from the upper ranks of society, and 60 centurions promoted from the ranks, as well as other lesser officers. A legionary served with the colours for twenty years and recieved land and a bounty on discharge.
Trajan's Column,Rome.
Legionaries in action. Photo courtesy of The Imperial Twentieth Legion.
The Legions of the Roman Republic
Right: the early Roman legion, after the reforms of Camillus. It was composed of four distinct soldiers. In front were the velites, the youngest men, who acted primarily as skirmishers. Behind them were the hastati, followed by the veteran principes and the oldest men in the legion, the
triarii, who were reinforced by the velites once the battle began.
The new legion had far greater flexibility and range of tactical employment; it's chequerboard formation allowed for a system of reliefs during combat. The legion was capable of forming a number of different formations to meet different situations. It replaced the one great single shock of the heavy phalanx with a series of smaller shocks in rapid succession, by units more versatile and maneuverable. It put much greater demands upon the individual, however, demands that could only be achieved by rigorous training and strict discipline. The old discipline, always severe, was unaltered, and drill and training prolonged. The entrenching of camps was also introduced, even when stopping for one night.
Legionaries in training. Photo courtesy of The Imperial Twentieth Legion.
The Centurion"I joined the army in the consulship of Publius Sulpicius and Gaius Aurelius(200 BC) and I served two years in the ranks in the army which was taken across Macedonia, in the campain against King Philip(of Macedonia). In the third year Quinctus Flaminius promoted me, for my bravery, centurion of the tenth maniple of hastati. After we had been brought back to Italy and demobilized, I immediately left for Spain as a volunteer with the consul Marcius Porcius. Of all living generals none has been a keen observer and judge of bravery than he.....This general judged me worthy to be appointed centurion of the first first century of hastati. I enlisted as for the third time, again as a volunteer, in the army sent against the Aetolians and King Antiochus(191-188BC); Marcus Acilius appointed me centurion of the first century of the principes......Twice after that I took part in campaigns in which the legions served for a year. Thereafter I saw two campaigns in Spain. Four times in the course of a few years I held the rank of chief centurion; thirty four times I was rewarded for bravery by the generals; I have been given six civic crowns. I have completed twenty two years of service in the army and I am now over fifty years old."
Livy, The History of Rome from its Foundation XLII 34.
Centurions rose through the ranks and were promoted up the legions command structure through valour and seniority. Any legionary could become a centurion, beginning as hastatus posterior of the Tenth Cohort, the most junior centurion , and perhaps rising to the rank of primus pilus, commander of the first century of the double strong First Cohort. This officer would likely be an experienced veteran and would be heavily relied upon by the commander of the legion, the legate.
Award | Name | Reason | |
Crown of bay | Corona triumphalis | For the triumphator | |
Crown of oak leaves | For saving the life of a comrade | ||
In the form of a ship's prow | For the first to board an enemy ship | ||
In the form of a city wall | For the man who stormed the city walls | ||
In the form of a rampart | For a man who took a camp | ||
Crown of plain gold | For pure bravery |
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