Stoicism: The chief proponent of this philosophy was
Seneca the Younger, a Spaniard. Seneca stated that "the soul's entire struggle is with the flesh that
oppresses it." He denounced heating in houses, taking a bath, and any form of comfortable living. He also
denounced the bloody Roman games. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius was
an advocate of stoicism.
The Roman Family: All family occasions from "cradle to
grave" were accompanied by proper ceremonies with the father as the head of the family. The spirits of
ancestors were also a part of the household. They hovered near their homes and burial places. The Romans
were influenced by the Greeks in terms of religion. They had the same gods, but different names (see Roman Gods and Goddesses for information about them). Roman holidays were at
first connected with religious festivals but they became a lot more frequent later on at 132 per year.
Cults: As the Empire expanded, many cults found their way
to Rome. One of the most popular of these cults was that of the sun god Mithras. But the Roman
government didn't object to any of this. As long as the religion was practiced out in the open it was fine,
but religions practiced in secret were suspect. Because of this, Judaism and Christianity were under
suspicion not only because they were secretive but also because they refused to worship Caesar.
Arts and Architecture: Roman art was a blend of Etruscan,
Greek and Oriental traditions. The use of the arch was learned from the Etruscans and the Romans boldly
carried on the traditions. The Romans were hence able to construct huge buildings. As was noted later on,
"the Greek architects strove for harmony and balance, the aim of the Romans was grandness." The Romans
were most famous for the construction of baths and aqueducts. The Roman baths were more than just
baths. They were enclosed gardens, promenades, gymnasia, lounges, libraries and even museums. The roof
of the bath resembled the interior of a 20th century railway station. The Pont du Gard, near Nimes in France
is still in great shape. These aqueducts supplied Rome, a city of more than one million people, with 455
liters of water per day.
Sculpture: In their sculptures, the Romans attempted to
portray real people, unlike the Greeks and their idealized types. They also excelled in a new type of
sculpture, the Equestrian Statue. The more the empire grew, the more immense the sculpture became. The
head of the Colossus of Constantine is a good example. It measured 2.5 meters.
Engineering: The Romans were outstanding engineers. Their
surveying was accurate and in tunneling, mining and drainage, no other people could match them. Their roads were also very remarkable. Each stretch of road required precision- bottom
layers of flagstones, then rubble, then concrete, and on top, stone slabs or pounded gravel. They managed
to construct 85,000 kilometers of roads which led to every corner of the Empire. Each stretch had markers
to mark which emperor was involved with that stretch of construction.
When it came to scientific theory however, the Romans had to turn to the Greeks. The two greatest
scientific treatises of the Roman era were written by Greeks: PTOLEMY (90 - 168) who summarized ancient
knowledge of astronomy and geography. He also located places in terms of latitude and longitude.
GALEN (130 - 200) was a doctor in Rome who treated 3000 patients a year. He was the father of anatomy.
Literature: To the Romans, the most important part of a formal
education was Rhetoric - the art of persuasive or impressive speaking or writing.
CICERO: (106 - 43 B.C.) was the most famous advocate of rhetoric. Cicero wrote essays on literary
criticism and philosophy which drew heavily on Greek sources. He also wrote private letters which gave an
honest opinion of his times. These letters became literary classics.
VIRGIL: (70 - 19 B.C.) was a gentleman farmer until his estates were confiscated. He spent the rest of
his life in Rome or Naples. His greatest work was the Aeneid, the story of the founding of Rome by
Aeneas. This work established him as a world famous poet.
HORACE: (65 - 17 B.C.) was the son of a freedman. He fought at Philippi against Octavian and Mark Antony. His most famous book is called Odes, a set of lyric
poems dealing with a variety of subjects from a banquet to the defeat of Cleopatra.
OVID: (43 B.C. - 17 A.D.) is best remembered for Metamorphoses, a Roman version of "Arabian
Nights", consisting of myths and legends. He finally got into trouble for his poems and died in exile.
Women: At every stage in her life, the woman was under the
authority of some man. She still managed to be an honored mistress in the home. She spent her days
spinning wool, scolding and educating children, directing servants and managing money. Their arranged
marriages cemented the powerful alliances of the great families. During the latter stages of the Empire,
women gained greater overall respect. They even became gladiators!! Even though divorce and immorality
became frequent in later Roman times, "Rome, not Greece raised the family to a respected position."
Law: Under the Empire, one universal system of law was
worked out and enforced. The law gave equal justice to all Roman citizens. The law also tended to protect
the poorer and weaker against the stronger and richer. St. Paul said of Roman justice "It is not the custom
of the Romans to hand over any man before the accused has had an opportunity to defend himself." Of all
the ancient peoples, those who lived under this system had the best guarantee of securing justice.
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