Shenzhou
History |
China’s
manned space program can be traced back to 1960s. The Chinese began initial studies
on manned spaceflight in 1966, just five years after Gagarin’s historic
flight. It became a serious program when China’s first satellite launched into
space in April 1970. On July 14, 1970, Chairman Mao approved the country’s first manned space
program, codenamed Project 714. China's first manned spacecraft, called “Shuguang
(Dawn) 1", was a two-man Gemini-like capsule. Although 19 taikonaut
trainees were selected and some equipments were developed, the spacecraft
never left the drawing board. As a victim of the Lin Biao
event, the program was
suspended immediately and then totally abandoned in late 1970s when China
decided to shift its space priorities to more practical applications, such as
communication satellites.
In
1986, China started a national strategic high-tech development program, Program
863. Space technology, coded 863-2, is one of its six research areas. In
November 1986, two study directions in the space field were identified and two
expert groups were established. The first was for a heavy launch vehicle and
manned space transportation system (code 863-204), and the other for a manned
space station system (code 863-205). Manned spaceflight again got a chance.
During
1986 to 1988, the 863-204 space transportation program attracted numerous
organizations from Chinese space industry, academy and educational systems. By
June 1988, six proposals were reviewed by the 863-204 expert group.
They are:
Proposed by CAST(Chinese
Academy of Space Technology), it is a non-reusable capsule-type spacecraft. It was to be launched by expendable launchers, in a way similar to
the Soviet (now Russian) Soyuz. Its first launch was targeted by 2000.
Named
as Chang Cheng 1 (Great Wall 1), it was jointly proposed by SAST (Shanghai Academy
of Spaceflight Technology) and Institute 604 of the Ministry of Aeronautics. The shuttle would be launched by expendable launchers vertically and
inserted into orbit by its main engines at final ascend stage. Its
first launch was targeted around 2008.
Named
as Tian Jiao 1 (Outstanding in Space), it was proposed by CALT (China Academy of
Launch Vehicle Technology). Aerodynamically it is a 1:6 scaled down US shuttle.
Without the main engine, it would be launched vertically by expendable launchers
and would take 15 years to develop.
Designated
as V-2, it was proposed by the 11th Institute of the Ministry of
Aeronautics, in Beijing. It is a two-stage to orbit, vertical take-off and
horizontal landing system. Both the booster stage and the orbital stage are
winged. The orbital stage has its own engines. Its first launch was targeted
around 2015.
Designated
as H-2, it was proposed by Institute 601 of the Ministry of Aeronautics. The
two-stage system includes a large aerospace plane and a small orbiter. The
aerospace plane would use its air-breathing engines to accelerate the
combination to hypersonic. Its first launch was also targeted around 2015.
It
was proposed by Institute 611 of the Ministry of Aeronautics. As the
institute was working on cooperative aeronautics projects with international
partners that time, it proposed to transfer or license technologies directly
from other countries (presumably European countries).
In
July 1988, two proposals, the CALT mini-shuttle and the CAST capsule were
selected from the six. However debates on shuttle vs. capsule continued.
Consensus of developing a capsule type spacecraft as the first step was reached
around July 1989 when the final report of the 863-204 space transportation
system study was completed. In October 1990, another report on the manned space
program by the Development Research Center of the State Council (DRC), a famous
Chinese think tank, was completed and submitted to the government.
The report included conclusions of the 863-204 studies as well as comprehensive
analysis on political, economical and financial analysis. Unfortunately they did
not echo an immediate political decision and further studies and lobbying had to
continue.
Then,
in
January 1991, the Ministry of Aerospace established the manned space program
team headed by Liu Jiyuan. Its objective was to continue technical evaluation so
as to influence political decisions. In February 1991, Liu Jiyuan
submitted a meeting memo on the manned program to the Chinese leadership.
After that, there were fast progresses. Chinese leaders, including President
Jiang Zemin and the Premier Li Peng, expressed their support on the memo (see
right picture). Li Peng met experts in March. Extensive studies on program
definition, short-term and long-term objectives, organizational and financial
issues were done in later 1991 and early 1992. Several batches of Russian
exports were invited to China to take lectures and 20 young engineers went to
Russia for short-term studies.
During
this period, CAST studied three spacecraft designs: the Soyuz-like three-module
configuration, the “hard tunnel” three-module configuration (the reentry
module is at top, with an external tunnel to the middle-placed orbital module),
and the two-module configuration (without the orbital module). At the same time,
CALT and SAST also proposed their own three-module designs. The CALT design has
a large independent orbital module, which was first proposed by Ren Xinmin, a
senior space scientist, around 1987. In November 1991, CAST, CALT and SAST
submitted their spacecraft designs. It was decided that the final capsule design
would be the three-module configuration with an orbital module that would be able to work
independently for 180
days.
On
September 21, 1992, the Chinese government formally approved the manned space
program, the Project 921, kicking off an 11-year long full scale (phase one)
development. In 1994, the spacecraft was formally named Shenzhou (Divine
Vessel). The 1992 plan demanded a three-phase implementation of the whole manned
program:
The
first manned spaceship to be launched by 2002
The
man tended mini space station, the 8-ton class Space Laboratory, to be
launched by 2007.
The
20-ton class modular permanent station to be launched after 2010.
Phase
One plan called for launch of the first unmanned spaceship in 1998, or as late as
in 1999, and three unmanned launches before the first manned spaceflight by
2002.
Project
921 includes seven independent systems. They are:
Spacecraft
System CAST is responsible for the overall design, the reentry and the
orbital module development. SAST is responsible for the propulsion module,
the propulsion, power and TC&C subsystems of all three modules. The
spacecraft system chief designer is Qi Faren from CAST.
Launcher
System CALT is responsible for development of the CZ-2F man-rated rocket
including the new shroud and escape tower. Its chief designer is Liu
Zhusheng.
Launch
Site System It includes a new launch complex at the Jiuquan Satellite Launch
Center (JSLC) consisting of a vertical assembly building (VAB), a launch pad
and service tower, a mobile launcher transporter, as well as other
necessary facilities. Its chief designer is Xu Kejun.
Landing
Zone System The main and backup landing zones are in Siziwangqi and
Alashanyouqi (near JSLC), Inner Mongolia. The system includes all necessary
equipment, vehicles, personnel and training. Its chief designer is Zhao Jun.
TC&C
System It needs to establish a totally new unified S-band TC&C
network (China has only VHF and C-band TC&C network previously), to
build several domestic and overseas tracking stations and a control center,
and to convert a scientific survey ship into a tracking ship (Yuan Wang 4).
Its chief designer is Yu Zhijian.
Taikonaut
System. It includes taikonaut selection and training, spacesuit, medical
equipment and space food. Its chief designer is Shu Shuangning.
Application
System Chinese Academy of Sciences is responsible for planning, design
and development of Shenzhou’s scientific payloads. Its chief designer is
Gu Yidong.
Chief
designer of the Project 921 is Wang Yongzhi, a student of Vasili Mishin.
Although
China has accumulated considerable experiences on FSW recoverable satellites, the new manned
spacecraft is larger, more complicated, and requires higher reliability. It was
a real challenge, especially for the reentry module. It has already been decided to
adopt a Soyuz-like aerodynamic shape for the capsule before approval of
Project 921. Based on this basic model, CAST then developed 9 variations in
three types and determined the final design after a series of numeric analysis,
computer simulation and wind tunnel tests. Also, 18 key technical issues were
identified and their studies started quite early. One of these was thermal
protection near portholes. Chinese engineers went to Russia to test in the U-15T-1 arc-jet
plasma wind tunnel in TsNIIMash in the summer of 1995, 1998 and 1999. Engineering
development began in August 1995. However, welding, deformation control and
sealing of the reentry module met a series of difficulties. Development of the
propulsion module by SAST also encountered many problems. Throughout
tremendous efforts, by end of 1998, they managed to deliver four ground models:
two structural models, one thermal control model, and one electrical test model
that later became Shenzhou 1.
In
contrast, CZ-2F launcher development was relatively smooth as the
existing CZ-2E was a sound basis. The main focus was on improving its subsystems with
new components, new software, and redundant systems to increase its reliability
to 97%. However, development of the launch escape system including the four
aerodynamic stabilizers on the shroud (the so-called “lattice wing” by
Chinese), were more difficult. It is reported that Russian put a price tag of 10
million US dollar for the “lattice wing”, which forced Chinese to develop
its own. On the other side, initial escape motor tests in April and August 1995
continued to fail. It was not until April 1997 that the test fire got first
success. In mid 1996, the shroud was found to be overweight by over 900kg. It was
later overcome by reducing it by 400kg and at the same time increasing motor thrust. On October
19, 1998, a complete escape tower with a simulated spacecraft was successfully
test launched. It was a milestone in the program history.
At
the same time progress was also being made on other systems. Major new facilities were
built in mid and later 1990s, including the new launch facility in JSLC, the
main and backup landing zones in Inner Mongolia, the Yuan Wang 4 tracking ship,
the Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center, as well as many testing
facilities, the latter including China’s largest 12m diameter thermal vacuum chamber
KM-6.
Meanwhile,
according to the agreement signed with the Russian government in
1993, two Chinese pilots were trained in Russia's Cosmonaut Training Center in
Star City between October 1996 to later 1997. And, throughout strict and
complicated selection procedures from end of 1995 to end of 1997, 12 formal
taikonauts were selected. In early 1998, the 14 strong taikonaut group was established
and began training for China’s first manned spaceflight. In July 1999, they
went to Russia to carry out weightless training on the IL-76 zero gravity plane.
Total
spending on the program from 1992 to 2003 is about 18 billion RMB Yuan (USD 2.1
billion), among which 10 billion was spent on infrastructures. One unmanned
launch costs about 800 million Yuan (a little less than USD 100 million) while
the manned Shenzhou 5 is about one billion Yuan (USD 120 million).
Shenzhou 1,
the first unmanned spaceship, is actually originally unplanned. In 1999, the
first CZ-2F was ready to fly and its planned payload would have been a dummy. As
Shenzhou development was behind schedule and the 1999 deadline was getting
closer, a risky but crucial decision was made -- to refurbish the ground
electrical test model to a flight prototype. The Shenzhou 1 spacecraft was in
fact incomplete but the bottom line is to guarantee safe return of the capsule,
which means both the reentry module and the propulsion module should be almost
complete. Its orbital module has neither working solar panels nor life
support system.
Refurbishing
and testing a ground test model to a flight-ready spacecraft in short time was a
challenge. There were even major problems months before the launch. In October
1999, a gyro problem was found and the heat shield had to be taken off to allow
examination and repair. Fortunately the risky job was done smoothly.
At
6:30 November 20, 1999 (all times Beijing Time), Shenzhou 1 was
successfully launched by the first CZ-2F rocket, fulfilling the target set in
1992. Shenzhou 1 entered an initial orbit of about 200x330km with an inclination
of 42.6 degree. The spacecraft orbited the Earth 14 times and no maneuvers
were performed. It successfully returned to the Earth at 3:41 on November 21.
Although
launch and landing seemed perfect, the flight was not all smooth. At the third
to last orbit, the retrofire command failed to be injected into the computer on
the spacecraft. A retry on the second to last orbit also failed.
Fortunately, the spacecraft finally got the command on its last orbit, which
probably saved the whole program.
Shenzhou
1 carried no major scientific payloads inside its modules. There were seeds,
covers, flags and other commemorations in the reentry capsule. It is noticed
that on top of the orbital module there was an external package with three
antenna-like pods that China never revealed its purpose.
Shenzhou
2 would have been the first of three unmanned spaceship and became the
first fully equipped spacecraft. Compared to the Shenzhou 1, it had a fully-functional orbital module and
many improvements on all three modules.
Shenzhou
2 was to be launched on January 5, 2001. However, a movable platform in the VAB
unexpectedly hit the CZ-2F launcher on December 31, causing a large visible
depression on the second stage. The accident delayed the launch immediately.
After 10 days of inspections and testing, engineers confirmed no serious
damages on either the launcher or spacecraft. The spaceship was finally
launched into space at 1:00 on January 10, 2001.
Shenzhou
2 flew 7 days, orbiting the Earth 108 times in a “standard Shenzhou
orbit” that includes a major maneuver from the initial ~200x330km orbit to a ~330km circular orbit
some 21 hours (or 7 hours for later Shenzhou missions)
after launch. Once the reentry capsule returned to the Earth, the orbital module
fired it own engine, maneuvered itself to a higher ~390x400km orbit to continue working for six months until its natural decay on August 21, 2001.
There were several major maneuvers during its working period.
The
biggest mystery of Shenzhou 2 was its landing. The landing at 19:22 on January 16,
2001 was reportedly successful. However, unlike Shenzhou 1, the Chinese have not
released any photographs of the reentry capsule. This raised rumors that the
parachute system was with troubles and the capsule had a “hard landing”.
Separately, it is known that one and half hour before landing, the
spacecraft’s attitude lost stability because of depressurization of the
orbital module, a necessary step to guarantee safety when separation explosive
bolts work. Fortunately the spacecraft was still in control. It recovered
stability when depressurization completed.
Shenzhou 2 carried 64 experiments, 15 of which were in the reentry capsule and 12 in the orbital module. 37 experiments or instruments were installed on the exterior of the orbital module. On top of the orbital module, there was still the 3-pod package. Many of the scientific results from Shenzhou 2 experiments have been published.
Shenzhou
3 was marked as the first “man-ready” spacecraft. It was the first one to be launched with a
fully-functional escape tower and a dummy taikonaut.
Although status changes on the spacecraft are less than Shenzhou 2, the interval
between Shenzhou 2 and Shenzhou 3 launches was longer -- 16 months. This was, in
fact, the result of a rare rollback in Chinese space history.
In
January 2002, during the pre-launch checkout, an electrical connector on the
rocket was found failed. A decision was made to rollback the launcher,
disassemble it, transport it back to Beijing, and replace all its connectors. In Beijing, ten flaws on the Shenzhou 3 spacecraft were also detected and
corrected. Three months later, Shenzhou 3 was launched smoothly at 22:15 on May 25,
2002.
Shenzhou
3 flight was by then the smoothest one. It repeated the Shenzhou 2 profile and
landed perfectly at 16:51 on April 1, 2002. China immediately released the landing
photos.
According
to reports, Shenzhou 3 carried 44 scientific payloads, the most notable being a medium-resolution imaging spectroradiometer developed by Chinese Academy of
Sciences. It was installed on top of the orbital module and replaced the old
mystery package.
Shenzhou 4 was an identical copy of Shenzhou 3 and, for the first time, the escape tower was in active status during launch. The objective of the Shenzhou 4 was to have the final rehearsal for the manned Shenzhou 5 flight.
Shenzhou 4 was launched at 0:40 on December 30, 2002, at temperature of -18.5°C. It set a record of lowest launch temperature in Chinese space history. The successful launch relieved concerns of possible impacts by the weeklong cold weather with lowest temperature down to -27°C.
Shenzhou
4 carried 52 scientific payloads including a microwave radiometer
Shenzhou
4 flight was so successful that very soon after the flight, China announced that
the Shenzhou 5 flight would take place in less than one year.
Just
one year behind the planned deadline set in 1992, at 9:00 on October 15, 2003,
Shenzhou 5, China’s first manned spacecraft, lifted off from the Jiuquan
Satellite Launch Center, a place at that time was extensively photographed by
satellites in space. 21 hours and 23 minutes later, the reentry capsule
landed in Siziwangqi, Inner Mongolia at 6:23 on October 16. Yang Liwei became the
first Chinese citizen in space and China became only the third nation to
launch a human into space.
Shenzhou
5 flight proved so smooth that Yang Liwei was more like a passenger than a
pilot. The only disclosed flaw was that digital video transmission during launch
was interfered and people in the control room were unable to see Yang on the
screen from minutes after the liftoff until communication was reestablished by
the next tracking station. Chinese and international media have extensive coverage
on this mission.
To
safe guard the main objective – sending a man into space and bringing him
safely back –
Shenzhou 5 carried no scientific experiments in either the reentry or orbital modules, except for some seeds from Taiwan, flags and other
commemorative material. On the orbital module, a pair of large optical cameras
was
installed on top and side. Ground resolution of the
camera was reportedly 1.6m. Shenzhou 5 orbital module continued to work for 6
months and decayed on May 30, 2004.
Shi
Lei, Declassify Secrete Documents of Chinese Manned Space Program, Aerospace
World, Issue 23, 2003
Shi
Lei, Fang Fei Shen Zhou, China Machine Press, Beijing, 2003
Zhu
Zengyi, Fei Tian Meng Yuan, Huayi Publishing House, Beijing, 2003
Zhong
Guo Fei Tian Ji, Guangming Daily Press, Beijing, 2003
Picture credit: CAST, Raumfahrt Concret, CCTV, CEAV, Aerospace World
(Edited versions of this article were published on the April, 2005 issue of Spaceflight and issue 3, 2004 of Raumfahrt Concret)