Mr. Njuangang Stanley was born in Fontem in the S.W province of Cameroon were he attended the St. Josephs college of Sasse before proceeding to the University of Buea where he graduated in 1997 with B.Sc Hons. degree in Geography.Equally, he is married and a father to a son LEO_RAPHEAL.
Chapter one 2
1:1 MIGRATION TO THE COAST: 2
1:2 THE PLANTATIONS AND POST COLONISATION: 6
1:3 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS: 9
CHAPTER two 10
2:1 TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE IN ALIMOH: 10
2.2 OTHER FORMS OF MARRIAGE: 13
2:3 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POLYGYNY 15
2:3:1 INTRODUCTION: 15
2:3:2 PROBLEMS: 16
CHAPTER three 19
3:1 TRADITIONAL FESTIVALS ASSOCIATED WITH BIRTH: 19
3:2 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND BELIEFS: 21
CHAPTER four 26
4:1 RITUALS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY: 26
CHAPTER five 31
5:1 SOCIO-POLITICO AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT: 31
Chapter one
1:1 MIGRATION TO THE COAST:
Alimoh is a village in the South West province of Cameroon. Like the rest of Anglophone Cameroon, Alimoh was administered as a trust territory under the British. It is situated in the highland region of Cameroon, with a mild climate and a vegetation of grass and trees. The vegetation is rich in such bio-medicinal and commercial plants as mahogany, obeche, eucalyptus, and the iroko. Though the habitats of most animal species are under the threat of development, Alimoh is home to antelopes, lions, snails, tigers, monkeys and leopards. Certain traditional beliefs and practices have had their toll on these limited and valuable resources. For instance, a certain traditional title is bestowed on locals who exercise their bravery in killing such animals as lions and tigers. In the past, hide and skin was used in decorating the palace and constituted a show of traditional strength and authority.
Alimoh had its first contact with the outside world during the German colonial days. This was a period marked by the wide spread of tropical diseases, intertribal wars and forced labour that was inflicted on the locals by the Germans. The Germans viewed the locals as laborers meant to generate raw materials to support their demand at home. To meet this objectives, rubber, cocoa, banana and timber plantations were set up in the coastal towns of Cameroon. Other facilities such as sea ports, feeder roads and ferries were also constructed through forced labour to facilitate the transportation of raw materials. Today, some of these installations serve as tourist attractions while others still serve the local communities. The German hanging bridge in Mamfe is the only link between the towns of Mamfe and Akwaya. The end of the first world war brought an end to the German rule of Cameroon.
The League of Nations (born after First World War) took little consideration into the already developed relationship between Germany and Cameroon. Such a consideration would have saved Cameroon the current political impasse between the predominantly French part of Cameroon and the minority English Cameroon. By 1886, the Germans had build and set up schools and churches in the coastal towns of Cameroon. Much research had been done in the agricultural and mining sectors.
British rule after the Second World War brought some sporadic socio - economic, administrative development and advancement into the interiors of Southern Cameroon. The British policy of Indirect rule also helped prepared locals for self rule. Some scholars have acclaimed Britain for reorganising the plantations, thus setting the pace for an economic take off. However, comparatively, the Germans seemed to have developed southern Cameroon than the British despite the latter’s long stay in the region. It should however be noted that, under the Germans, traditional laws were subordinate to German codes. The German rule was coercive and brutal as locals were forced from their villages to work in the plantations without remuneration and social facilities. The peoples of Alimoh were also forced from their village under inhuman conditions to work in the plantations. Alimoh is inaccessible and disease infested, a factor that contributed to the high mortality rates witnessed during this period. Mortality was solely attributed to sleeping sickness, malaria and typhiod. Those who were forcefully taken to the south had a relative better standard of living. Unlike in Alimoh, the weather of the coastal towns was more hospitable, coupled with the sporadic social facilities provided by the colonial authorities. Today, some of these families are a strong political and economic force to reckon with. There still exist a wide disparity in economic and social development between the coastal towns and the highland regions of S. Cameroon.
As part of their policy to reduce mortality rates and spur development, both the colonial and post colonial administrations encouraged all the locals of Alimoh to resettle in the village of Meanji. Unlike other distance transfers, caused by the imbalance between resources (cultivable land) and population, Alimoh is a rich resource base. Meanji is the divisional headquarters of the lebialem division of which Alimoh is part.
At the time of time of resettlement, the then authorities paid little attention to the socio-psychological needs of the locals. There was the lost of the religion of the ancestors; the honor of the death lost of
Sacred forests, arts and pottery and the dispersal of the peoples of Alimoh through out the adjoining villages. Despite this change of habitat, the people of Alimoh still hold to their tradition through the organization of traditional meetings.
Most young people who survived the outbreaks of sleeping sickness, malaria and typhoid, were forced to work in the plantations and serve in the German regiment during the First World War. There are no documented cases of the number of people from Alimoh who were forced to work in the plantations or fight alongside the Germans during the First World War. However, oral history has it that, hundreds of people taken from Alimoh to fight in the wars never returned.
During German rule, plantation labour was detested and seen as a form of forced and unjustified labor. Many families were separated as the men were taken to work in the plantations. The duration was unlimited and many never returned to their families. Most locals had to flee deep into the jungle to avoid enlistment.
However, the situation changed during the British era, as the administration of the plantations was partially left in the hands of locals (Indirect Rule). The plantations became the main source of employment and income. Locals began to learn the principle of market economy; the need to generate income and improve their living standards. The wind of change was also blowing from the Diaspora as Pan-Africanism was taking its roots in Africa.
The plantations after the 2nd world war were reorganized and partially left in the hands of the locals through the Ex - Enemy lands ordinance of 1946. The lands were declared native lands and were to be administered for the common benefit of the people .It was therefore against this background that, most people of the grassland regions migrated to the south, to work in the plantations. The plantations were serious incentives to the entire country. Thousands of migrant workers came from the then French Cameroon and Nigeria. Certain social and medical facilities were being provided to the locals for the very first time. The corporation was required by its constitution to pay attention to the welfare of its employees, by providing certain social and medical facilities. As far back as the year 1920, the corporation initiated an eradication campaign against Anhostromisis. Though the original
Intention was to strengthen the health of workers, the result was felt beyond the corporation as labor was never permanent. Most of the plantation workers were periodic workers who worked only to generate finance for such traditional ceremonies as marriage, burials and to purchase land. The nature of labor was therefore not permanent and always involved new set of recruits. Moreover, there was another set of immigrants who upon acquiring wealth and property, took up permanent residence in the plantations vicinities, thus enjoying certain benefits. The village of Mautu in the Meanja plantation is an example of a village enjoying some of the socio- medical facilities of the corporation. Most counter stream migrants from the plantation of Meanja take up residence in Mautu. The village of Mautu, enjoys the free supply of portable water and health services provided by the corporation. Similar health campaigns were also launched in later years against such illnesses as small pox, filarial, whopping cough and diphtheria. It was therefore no surprise that, life was better in the south. Moreover there were no such services as portable water, electricity, education and housing in Alimoh.
Traditional rites were often performed to invoke the gods to guide those who traveled to the coast. The trip had a duration of between one - two months, on foot and through dense forest with wild animals which often killed locals. Children were mostly the victims, as many of them died from air and water borne diseases. Because of the difficulties of making it to the Southland of plenty, some locals took up residence in the intervening villages. Through the hospitality of the peoples of Bakebe, Manyemen and Tinto, several locals found it easy to take up residence, thus assimilating the culture and way of life. In the past, a tired or sick person could simply knock at the hut of an indigene for accommodation, feeding and in some rare cases a concubine to pass the night.
In spite of the difficulties, many people from the village of Alimoh made it to the plantations areas (the land of hope and prosperity). This is reflected in the number of Alimoh settlers in the coastal towns. Unlike today, there were no requirements in working in the plantations. The only requirement was ones physical strength in the fields. Those with extra skills were trained to tap and collect latex from the rubber trees. It was a training that lasted for a couple of weeks. In the past, plantation workers held a high socio- economic status in the community.
Through hardwork and tolerance, many locals from Alimoh rose to the rank of headmen and overseers. At the time, this was an important and respected status .Unlike the German days , the British had an organigramme comprising the estate manager, the senior field assistants or a junior field assistants, over - seers, the headmen and the general labour.There existed other officials at the administrative level who formulated policies and implementation. The post of headmen and over - seers was reserved for dedicated workmen despite their inability to read and write. Unlike workers of the general labor, headmen and overseers were entitled to a fringe benefit of a dilapidated, two rooms, and semi permanent structure. As part of their duty, headmen supervise small groups of men who tap and collect latex and ensure that the required output is attained. They also serve as arbitrators in the case of a dispute among group members and may recommend new recruits to the authorities.
Because of the close relationship and interdependence within families, most migrant workers traveled back to the village of Alimoh for such traditional rites as marriage, death, birth and inheritance. As a result, the plantations suffered tremendous losses in man days resulting from absentism, sickness and job abandonnement.
1:2 THE PLANTATIONS AND POST COLONISATION:
Most writers have often critised the nature of labor during the colonial period without examining the lot of the common man in the post colonial times. It is undeniable that labor in the colonial days was coercive and sometimes inhuman. For instance, contingents of people from Alimoh died as a result of the hash plantation labor.
To the dismay of the paramount chief, he ordered the killing of Konrad(a German colonial officer) when he failed to honor his promise of bring back the laborers .He was therefore imprisoned for an indefinite period of time in the prison center of Garoua.
Despite such criticisms the livelihood of the common man has not changed for good. Locals found themselves marginalized and redundant from the plantations when the process of mechanization began after independence. There was no rehabilitation or retraining programmes. Most of the facilities inherited have deteriorated with little renovation and construction. This is regardless of the fact that the Cameroon Development Corporation, (which operates the plantations) accounts for a substantial percentage of the gross national product.
An examination of the number of children/ family in the estates would reveal a high dependency rate, a factor partly attributed to illiteracy and local customs. There is a ratio of six children per family. A fact which could be attributed to the early marriages and a relatively improved health facilities. As a result of the inability of parents sending their children to schools, most of these children end up working in the fields. It is therefore a vicious cycle of the poverty. It is not uncommon to find a family of 7 sharing a two room’s dilapidated semi permanent structure. Most children grow in a socially unfriendly environment where there is no privacy between adults and children. Most of these children become a nuisance to the society. Children from such families are more likely to engage in criminal acts and respect such traditional practices as polygyny.
Poor enumeration, coupled with a high dependency has meant few plantation workers can afford retirement homes. The situation of those with many dependants even worsens, as the government does not provide such services as houses.
It should however be noted that, the managerial class of workers; the educated class, have smaller families (monogamous in nature) and good socio - economic advantages. However, this category of workers constitutes only a small fraction of the overall work force.
Migration from the highlands to the south has its own consequences. The governments failure to create job centers in the predominantly Anglophone Cameroon has only added to the influx of migrants into the coastal towns. Such an uncontrolled immigration has resulted to a wide range of socio-political and environmental problems.
Such problems include the rapid growth of ghettos and slums. There is much pressure and misuse of the insufficient social services such as sewage, water supply, schools and hospitals. The problem is further aggravated by the government’s failure in handling social services. Each individual in Cameroon takes care of his sewage, the planning and construction of his house. The result is the juxtaposition of dilapidated houses. One mans´ toilet serves as the neighbors´ veranda and play ground. No doubt, the outbreak of disease is common.
Another problem is that of environment degradation. Most settlers have little respect in their method of managing and coexisting with the environment. The practice of collecting wood for energy and construction has reduced forest density and endangered some species of animals. Hunting has become a way of generating income and livelihood for the poor. The poor implementation of forestry laws and the encroachment of developers have reduced the populations of certain animals. Porcupines, Lions, Tigers and Monkeys have been driven deep into the wild.
Unlike the mount Cameroon forest project, the Korrup National Park project, little hope has been restored to the rich and diverse forest of Alimoh. The global ban on the sales of elephant tusks has done little in changing long held traditional beliefs. There is much traditional respect on the carrying of sticks made from elephant tusks. It is seen as a show of ones magical and spiritual powers.Moreso, traditional dance attires and instruments often require the use of animal skin and feathers. Funs and chiefs decorate their palaces with animal skin(they sit on chairs covered with lion skin).
The government’s effort in carving out forest reserves through out country has fallen short in solving the problem of pouching and forest destruction. Corrupt forestry officials sell timber and give unrealistic permission to friends and family members to cut down trees for construction.
Large areas of the land are set ablaze each year, in an effort to clear land for farming. The result is an uncontrolled encroachment and the death of such life forms as crickets, rat moles and palm birds. The size of farmlands is on an increase partially due to the increase in population but in part, as a result of poor farming practices. There is also the problem of garbage disposal and collection. The absence of a reliable garbage disposal and collection system has resulted in the littering of garbage in the streets. The random disposal of such items as cellophanes, cans, peelings and rubbish is a problem to the Muyuka Rural Council. Though unnoticed, the dumping of waste into water bodies has an environmental consequence. As a result of dumping, the Moungo River has become unclean for domestic use. The size of water bodies and the aquatic life therein is likely to be affected.
There have been cases of dispute between settlers and the indigenous people. Indigenous people have witnessed a decline in their culture and political power. As a result, there have been numerous cases of political infighting and land dispute. A serious bone of contention is the influence of the indigenous chiefs in the administration of the plantations. The 1946 ordinance stipulated that the plantations lands were native land leased to the C.D.C for the common benefit of the people. It is no surprise that, the Bakweri Chiefs Conference attempts to have a say in the administration of the corporation.
The governments´ plans to privatize the C.D.C has met opposition from both the indigenes and the chiefs. They fear, native lands could be transferred to non- indigenes, especially to individuals with strong political affiliation to the ruling political party; the Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement (C.P.D.M).
Politicians have also exploited the divide between the settlers and the natives for their own political gains. They have exploited such sensitive issues (as land disputes, the right of the indigenous people in securing appointments and the powers of the chiefs) for their political goals.The examples of Rwanda, Burundi and the Balkans should serve as a clear warning to local politicians who propagate the doctrine of ethnic hatred.
1:3 POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS:
The government must acknowledge the fact that, the population of the coastal towns is on a geometric rise and thus increase the provision and quality of social and economic services.Emmigration from other regions; the North West and western provinces, and other neighbouring divisions; Manyu, Lebialem, Kupe Manengumba should be discouraged through the modernization of the agricultural sector(e.g. provide and renovate existing communication and transport systems) and the creation of small and medium size industries in this areas.
Workers should be given the opportunity to improve their socio - economic status through educational and retraining schemes. Illiteracy is the main blame for the cycle of poverty witnessed by the laborers.
And their families. The provision of a well coordinated family planning programme would reduce the high dependency rate witnessed by laborers and thus put less pressure on the insufficient social services. Such a move would also benefit the environment as illiteracy (traditional practices) is directly related to the deterioration of the environment.
The Cameroon Development Corporation should provide more services that would benefit the non plantation workers living in the neighbourhood.The success of the 1920 vaccination programme against Anhostromisis is a glaring example of the need for such programmes. More so, the supply of clean portable water to the Village of Mautu and Muyuka, helped reduced the spread of cholera and dysentry that plagued this regions in the late 1980s.Such initiatives would also reduce tension and cement the relation between the authorities and the indigenous people.
CHAPTER two
2:1 TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE IN ALIMOH:
Unlike in developed societies, marriage in Alimoh is exogamous in nature and highly influenced by family members. It is therefore impossible to find a consanguineous marriage in Alimoh since the entire clan is closely united and share an early ancestral history. However, the bride or bridegroom must come from the surrounding villages of the same ethnicity.
Parents and extended family play an indispensable role in deciding the choice of bride for their son. In some cases, two parents who are friends may celebrate the traditional marriage of their children before adulthood. In most cases, the bridegroom is much older than the bride. To consolidate the friendship of two families, a son born into either family, automatically marries a newly born female from the other. It is therefore normal for a father to start getting favor from a family, with the hope of preserving his young daughter as bride to their son. Such arrangements contracted by parents are final and except in the case of death non reversible. It is seen as a taboo in Alimoh for children to disrespect their elders and parents.
The whole process of engaging a bride starts with the presentation of firewood and palm oil to the bride’s family. Firewood was seen as a valuable resource in the past. It was to be used as a source of energy for cooking food for the bride, as the in-laws await a healthy and well nurtured bride for his son. To acknowledge acceptance, kola nut is broken and shared to the members of both families. The occasion finally ends with the drinking of palm wine.
Hereon, both couples are traditionally married and the bride may from time to time visit the home of the bridegroom. The upbringing of the bride also becomes the duty of both families.
Once the bride attains puberty, the bridegroom’s family is required to pay a dowry (in the past, this represented a token). In the past, salt, cowries, palm oil and palm wine were used as a form of payment. Today, money has replaced the old traditional way of payment. However, what constitute a bride price varies from one family to the other and mostly depends on the worth of the bride. One would therefore pay a high bride price for educated and royal women.
The payment of dowries is used to appease the bride’s family for the loss of their daughter. The father of the bride then distributes the dowry to the elders of the clan. In some cases, he gets no spoil of the dowry, as it is strictly on traditional hierarchy.
Not every bridegroom has grown up to accept the parents` choice of bride. The traditional preference of educating male children to female children has put the village woman in a subordinate position vis-à-vis the men. While the boys attend school, the girls are made to handle such domestic chores as cleaning, farming and cooking. The adverse trend has been that most educated men have tended to prefer the educated urban girls to the village girls.
There exist three possible solutions in the event that the bridegroom refuses to accept the bride as wife. She decides to remarry from the clan, stays with the in-laws and bear children for the family or refunds the entire dowry. Traditional marriage ends with the refund of the entire dowry. All the children delivered at the home of the in-laws, must bear the family surname. The bridegroom is also required by traditional law to accept both mother and children as his family. Some of these children have been successful in life.
The issue of marriage must have the approval and blessings of the elders of the clan. Elders have the duty to scrutinize the bride or the grooms and their families against any future misshapenness as rape, suicides and murder. Not all families accept the marriage of their children to families noted with such crimes. It is believed that, such traits can be passed from one family member to the other. Thus, ones child can be a subject of disgrace or a victim to a criminal act.
There is also strong opposition to the union of two families with the incidence of albinism, Down syndrome and mental disorders. Though locals have no scientific explanation for such moves, this practice has a long history.
There is opposition to the marriage of prostitutes, non-conformist, and divorcees with children and who are noted for committing abortions. Every effort is made to ensure that the bride is capable of bearing children.
The main traditional feast is held at the home of the bride though at the wish of the bridegroom, another feast may be held in his home. Family members and friends of both families are invited in the feasting.
The Main meal served, is the"nbab nkohya and nkondong". This is pork cooked in palm oil and plantains. Grounded groundnuts are also served to the invitees with pieces of kola nuts and palm wine. The pork is cooked into wholes and served in big dishes. The bride’s family reserves the right to inspect the content of the prepared food. As a role, all the parts and entrails of the slaughtered pig must be cooked and presented to the bride’s family. Of importance are the liver, kidney, chest and the head of the pig. The absence of which, may start an argument, disrupt the party and call for penalty. The bridegroom’s family may pay a sum of money equivalent to the market price of a healthy and mature pig.
In the absence of any disagreement, the ceremony starts with the pouring of libation. A clergyman might be given the first chance to offer a prayer before the pouring of libation.
The right to offer libation, is reserved to the elderly and chiefs. Palm wine is used as the main link between the dead and living spirits. It is poured into a cup made of Indian Bamboo, a cow horn or an antelope’s horn. The traditional rite of libation is exercised at the main entrance of the sitting Rome or hall. Intermittently, elders pour palm wine as they call on the spirits of the dead to bless the newly wed couples with understanding and children. Elders call on the spirits of ancestors from both families. Women with the traditional title of Morfaw may also assist in the traditional rite of libation.
The grave sites of ancestors (the bride’s family) are also visited for ancestral permission and assistance in the marriage. As palm wine is poured at the grave, one of the family members introduces the bridegroom to the ancestor(s).The palm wine is poured in the direction of the head, as it is believed that the dead can participate in drinking and eating.
Visiting the graves of ancestors can be a painful exercise, as widows, children and family members often sob for their loved ones.
Before merry making, the bride is required to drink and share palm wine with the bridegroom. This symbolizes her approval of the bridegroom. Once the two drink palm wine from the same cow horn, there is applause, singing and "let palm wine flow". Not until now, the two are not allowed to seat together as husband and wife.
As the two couples became legally married, so too are the two families
Interdependent. After the feast, few women and friends then escort the bride to her new home. In some cases, she travels with a child from the family to help in domestic chores. She is also given some presents; dishes, utensils and dresses from friends and family members.
2.2 OTHER FORMS OF MARRIAGE:
Unlike the pre-colonial days, colonization brought into existence; church and court marriages. Despite the existence of the church and court marriages, traditional marriage remains most popular and widely respected form of marriage. Although all three forms of marriage are practiced differently, they all have the same legal meaning. It should be noted that, matters pertaining to traditional marriages are handled in the customary courts while church and court marriages (meant for the elites) are mostly in the court of the first instance.
As stated, each form of marriage has a different method of practice. Unlike traditional marriage, church marriage is restricted to one man and a woman. However, very few individuals are likely to abide and prefer church doctrines to traditional norms and practices. Despite church attendance (irregular), about 95% of Alimoh still strongly belief in traditional religion. It is a common practice for men to withdraw from contracted church marriages in favor of the traditional marriage (Traditional marriage gives exclusive power to the man, to decide between monogamy and plygamy).
Before engaging a court marriage, the parties concern has to decide between polygyny and monogamy. Because men are educationally and economically powerful, they are more likely to insist on polygamy. Past traditional thinking dealt a devastating blow to the awareness of women in Cameroon. Families saw the education of women as a waste of resource and poor investment. Women are born to bear children, handle domestic chores and carter for their husbands. The civil life of most women dies after marriage as the community usurps their God given rights.
Though there exist a number of organizations, spreading the good news of emancipation that has not reduced the naivety of most rural women.
Women face an unproportional attention and treatment in the event of a divorce. Because of ignorance, a number of women receive no alimony, and are denied the right of mother/child relationship. Moreover, women are less likely to get a fair representation before the courts. The reason being that, a high proportion of women depend on the meager incomes of men. Because of this economic imbalance and the inability to refund dowries, women are bound to hold on to marriages even against their desires.
There exist an unrecognizable and popular form of marriage called "came we stay”. This relationship is popular among the unemployed city dwellers that stay in slumps. In the "came we stay", a man and a woman though not legally married stay in the same house as couples. In must cases, it is against the approval of both families and has ruined the life of most young women. This is so because most families oppose inter clan marriages. A marriage out of ones tribe is seen as a defiance and disobedience that could lead to the transfer of property and wealth to an alien tribe. Villagers also oppose to the inheritance and initiation of these children into sacred societies and other dance groups; an opportunity reserved for indigenes.
There are a number of factors that influences ones decision in deciding the nature of his marriage. Among such factors are traditional titles obtained, economic wealth, place and level of education. Traditional norms require traditional rulers and nobles to marry many wives. Equally, society, judges a man’s traditional power based on the number of wives and children he posses. In recent years, the government’s failure to pay subventions to chiefs has resulted in a social chaos. The second and third class of chiefs are the most hit. To meet up with the demand of a large family, most traditional rulers have levied an illegal tax on their subjects. Some projects have been halted because of mismanagement by some unscrupulous chiefs.
For the traditional rulers to obtain subvention and pull development into their administrative areas, they must join the ruling junta. This move has lead to traditional rulers losing allegiance from their subjects.
Wealth and age are important factors in making a decision between monogamy and polygamy. There are two categories of people who possess wealth in Cameroon; the educated and the uneducated. To the illiterate, wealth means a large family, traditional power and the respect of such traditional practices as polygyny.Through wealth, they acquire such traditional titles as for bravery "Feuhmazah" and intelligence"Foah Katte" through which they justify polygyny. Such kinsmen also serve in the village High Council called the "amah" .On the hand, the educated prefer nuclear families and are likely to send their children to good schools. Such individuals are less likely to seek traditional power and depend on inheritance.
There exists a disparity in the number of polygamous marriages in the rural and urban areas. Because of the low level of awareness and the strong attachment to traditional values, the rural man is more polygynous in nature. The number of wives and children are an important economic asset since most of rural farm work is done manually.
Education remains the only solution to the problems associated with polygenic. The ever increasing population has made it difficult for the government to implement socio- economic and political programmes.
In an effort to reduce population growth and improve standards of living, the government and some Non Governmental Organizations have set up family planning centers in rural areas. Because of dire ignorance, illiteracy and inadequate dissemination of information, such social programmes have failed to meet a total success. For instance, parents refused the vaccination of kids when it was rumored that, it was the Gandhi style of compulsory sterilization. As a result, few children got vaccinated and the projected target flopped.
2:3 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POLYGYNY
2:3:1 INTRODUCTION:
Not every man has accepted the family’s choice of bride as; there are some educated men who stubbornly decide their choice of spouse. Such individuals are likely to face strong criticism and pressure to have a second wife from the village. Such proposals have often strained relations between in-laws and the daughter in-laws.
A woman who opposes the marriage of a second wife (locally called "mbahya") is viewed by the community as a witch. Such women are thought to influence and control their husbands through powerful magical spells and charms. Once such an accusation is confirmed by a witchdoctor, family members and friends isolate husband and wife and seek a spiritual solution.
On the request and judgment of the sorcerer, a particular mammal or reptile maybe sacrificed to lend the support of the gods. The list of items demanded depends on the gravity of the problem. The powers of the witch are thought powerful if the man refuses a second wife, whereas the medicine man gets praises if the son adheres to pressure and gets a second wife. When a man finally accepts a second wife, he therefore accepts the fact that his wife is a witch. Such baseless accusations have led to divorces and to false and painful confessions by women.
Because women fear isolation and being labeled witches, they even encourage their husbands to polygyny. Some intransigent women have been physically abused for opposing the marriage of a second wife and for monopolizing wealth. Women always get the blame for their husband’s self centeredness towards the extended family. Unlike in developed societies, extended families are widely respected in Africa. It is a medium through which wealth and resources are distributed between the haves and the have nots. Thus, for a woman to get respect and favour, she must encourage her husband to help the members of his family. As the saying goes, “no one owns a child in Alimoh and a good seed would bear fruit for the entire village". No doubt the peoples of Cameroon still vote on tribal lines a favourable platform for nepotism, ethnic conflicts and cleansing.
2:3:2 PROBLEMS:
There is a psychological and physical struggle as the women seek to win romance and favour.Because of the impossible to share love and time proportionately; some of the women face emotional and sexual isolation. In most cases, the senior wife (with the title of ngwi nkongho) is the victims of sexual and economic deprivation. Any additional wife into a polygenic family reduces the time, wealth and love allocated to the elderly wives.
Because of the inability to refund dowries, most women seek solutions and explanations by complaining to their in-laws and other close friends. The in-laws have two possibilities in resolving this dispute. It can be a tèt a tèt discussion between father and son, or the summoning of a meeting of members of both families. In extreme cases, she may also secretly pack her belongings to her family. Base on traditional norms, a woman is forbidden to walk away from her marital home with the children. To seek the return of the disgruntled wife and appease her family, the husband must discharge an entourage comprising his parents for an apology. An understanding is reached when the man pays a fine and palm wine shared by the couples. Rarely do elders give divorce a chance during marital disputes as this would entail a refund or loss of dowry. Such a traditional conflict resolution mechanism only justifies male dominance and prolongs the suffering of women.
A number of women and children in polygamous homes suffer from physical torments and abuses. There have been cases where women and even children have been admitted into hospitals because of assault. The frail judicial and social environment only makes it difficult for the authorities to document cases of abuse. In a male dominated world like ours, a woman is treated as a servant who should be corrected through lashing and abuse. It is also a world in which the woman has no control over her own sexual drive, dressing and abilities. While a man has authority over sex, a woman could be seen as a prostitute if she approaches the husband for sex. Equally, a simple visit to a friend, bar or a dalliance in serving food, may result to a woman being assaulted.
Because only a small percentage of women are gainfully employed, economic neglect is a weapon used by some men to punish women. Such an economic disparity put women in a disadvantaged position as they are less likely to send children to schools, or sponsor traditional rites as burials, births and deaths.
In an effort to educate their children, most women have resorted to the retailing "buyam sellam" of such items as cigarettes, ground nuts and household items. For the business to generate enough returns, one of the children must assist the mother in the retailing industry. The said child forgoes his education in order to generate income for his brothers to attend schools. While children from monogamous homes stand a better chance of attending private schools and make it to professional schools and universities, their counterparts from large polygamous families end up as plantation workers, unskilled workmen and swell up the ranks of criminals. In some cases, girls as young as 17years get married in order that the dowry is used to educate their brothers. Since such marriages are contracted traditionally, little consideration is given to the age disparity between the bride and the bridegroom. It is no wonder that, a man of 40 - 50 years, with 4 wives can marry a girl of 16 -17 years. It should be noted that, most teenagers contract such marriages only after duress and torments.
Polygamous homes have a high rate of infant mortality and disease infections. Since most of these families are illiterates, little attention is always being put to the vaccination of children. As a result, children from large families are more susceptible to measles, small pox, cholera and maleria.Cases of child pregnancy, rape and death resulting from abortion is also prevalent in polygamous families. There have been cases of incest, in which a father or a half brother was responsible for a family pregnancy. Because of the fear of attacks, most cases of incest and rape go unreported.
Children from polygamous homes are more likely to serve and work as domestic servants. Poverty has led parents to send children to distant well- to- do relatives to assist in domestic chores. Irrespective of their ages, these children are made to handle work meant for adults and are denied the right to schooling and proper medication. They do the washing of utensils, cleaning, baby sitting, hawking and assist in farm work. The situation is bound to worsen giving the deteriorating economic situation which has triggered a cycle of illiteracy - high dependency ratio - poor health and low life expectancies.
Unscrupulous political leaders have in the past exploited the vulnerability of these children in organizing violent demonstrations " vie morts".During political turmoils, children are often caught in a cross fire with the forces of law and order as they set up road blocks and burn down houses. A number of these children have been shot dead, imprisoned and injured by their very government.
Once the family head dies, a legal dispute is bound to emanate as the wives scrumble to secure spoils. The government has been instrumental in solving these disputes through its imposition of court injunctions.Because of illiteracy and poverty few individuals prepare wills and seek legal counsels. Moreover, there is little possibility of polygamous parents setting insurance funds for their children.
Traditional custom require the next of kin to carter and assume sexual relationship with the wives (except his mother). Though this practice is increasingly unpopular, some next of kin’s retain the younger wives and bear children. Relatives of the bereaved may also negotiate a “take over" of some wives. Women who refuse to adhere to such a traditional practice have been forcefully expelled from their legal property.
In recent years, the emancipation of women has significantly enlightened women on their constitutional rights. Today, there exist a number of Non Governmental Organizations specialized on helping and stopping the abuse and exploitation of women.
There are a number of ways in which polygamist seek to administer and coordinate their homes. To reduce jealousy and quarrels, some men find it convenient having their wives in separate houses. Some of the wives and children may also take up residence with the in-laws. They are required to assist the in-laws in farm and house work. In most cases, the polygamist stays with the most loved and favored wife, while the others and their children get occasional visits. Such a coordination has led to most men abandoning the responsibly of catering for both wives and children. Because of the poor social relationship between father/children and wife, most children end up as criminals and the women as prostitutes. Unfaithfulness has resulted to the spread of sexually transmitted diseases and A.I.D.S.
CHAPTER three
3:1 TRADITIONAL FESTIVALS ASSOCIATED WITH BIRTH:
The conception and upbringing of a baby constitute an important part of the cultures of Alimoh. The decisions of when to have a baby, raise and socialize it, is influenced and directed by relatives, in-laws and the entire village.
In the past, the misfortune of childlessness was solely attributed to the barrenness of women. As procreation is the traditional objective of marriage, infertility and sub fertility has often led to extra marital relationships, polygyny and divorces. Equally, women are often required to bear more children just to satisfy the husband’s desire for a son (a next of kin).Relying on the expertise of medicine men; women (including healthy women) drink different concoctions of herbs and undergo painful traditional rites. For instance, during such treatments, most herbalists require the patients to go without shower for a number of days.
Small crawling creatures like toads and frogs serve as totems to pregnant women and newly wed couples. These creatures act as messengers informing families of an eminent pregnancy. Because of these traditional role, these totems are respected by young couples and pregnant women when found in the house.
During the pre colonial days, elderly women were very instrumental in nurturing and delivering babies. The absence of western medicine and facilities meant that Alimoh depended on unconventional methods and skills for the provision of health services. For example, a Childs umbilical cord was cut using a shape and clean edge of an "elephant” grass. Because trees such as the mahogany, obeche have long spans, parents burry the placenta and umbilical cords of children under this trees.
Custom also forbids mothers from having sex during the breastfeeding period, as it is believed that it contaminates the milk and causes to sickness.
Though such health techniques helped reduced fecundity, infant mortality was generally high during this period.
Moreover, the absence of birth registers made it difficult for the post independent administration to set up social and economic projects. Oral communication was the only medium through which the history and culture of Alimoh was preserved.
The entire community often awaits the new born baby with much curiosity. Visitors to the maternity carry with them food and baby items for both mother and baby and may offer financial assistance. Before delivery, the parents decide and carefully chose a surname for their baby from a list of ancestors. Men often enjoy the advantage of naming a surname of the first born child, as it is held that a wrong surname would result to child illness. A medicine man or sorcerer may also recommend a change of surname in the event that a child is troubled by ancestral spirits. Other given names such as Peter, Susan, etc inherited during the colonial days have little traditional significance.
Before the child leaves the maternity, friends and family members prepare a welcome ceremony. Given the importance of this ceremony, distant friends and relatives are informed through letters and radio announcements. A delegation of about three women is then dispatched to the maternity to accompany mother and baby to the house.
Once a baby leaves the maternity, a black tread is often tied around his right wrist or waist to deter evil spirits. This is also an occasion to welcome the baby to the clan through the traditional rite of the "feuhfuh". The feuhfuh is sacred and powders substance obtained from crushed ancestral bones. This substance is rubbed on the forehead of children to deter sickness and ill-luck. Given the sacredness of the feuhfuh, only a small quantity could be eaten and rubbed on parts of the body.
All the visitors are dusted on the chest with white powder and may respond by dropping a token for the newly born baby. The amount of powder received by an individual varies some how with ones social ties with the host family. As there is always enough powder to mask the multitude of visitors, a nice joke is always necessary to cajole the women responsible for the exercise.
The main traditional meal served during the "born house" is the "akuhdongnwah", other words called "sesse".The word akuhdong means plantains while "nwah" stands for child. The basic ingredients used in preparing this dish are slices of plantains, palm oil, cray fish, smoked fish, njangser, pepper, salt, water and vegetables; bitter leaves. Before the "sasse plantain" is served, the invitees are treated with palm wine and kola nuts. Today, this tradition has changed as wealthy families provide their guest with a variety of dishes, beverages and alcohol. Belonging to a social group normally brings an economic and psychological advantage to a mother after delivery. Base on the by-laws of these groups, the host receives goods such as buckets, washing basins, thermos flask, detergents and towels. By so doing, members cope and lessen the hash social and economic burden imposed by their authoritative and corrupt government.
3:2 TRADITIONAL MEDICINE AND BELIEFS:
The use of traditional medicine in Alimoh is as old as the village of Alimoh itself and has been useful in combating the multitude of diseases and ailments prevalent in the society. Only a few cases would be examined in this study and should not be practiced except supervised by an appropriate authority.
The rugged topography of Alimoh, coupled with no farm to village roads have led to fractures during the raining season. Most victims are women and children who handle the regular transportation of farm to village products and domestic chores.
The "manyi´s", possess the healing powers and techniques needed to re-align fractured bones and serve as local orthopaedians.
Traditionally, when a married couple bear twin children, the man and the woman are conferred the titles of "tanyi and manyi" respectively. For a "manyi" to possess this healing power, she must be troubled by a special spirit, after which she is initiated by elderly practioners.
Irrespective of initiation, by birth a"manyi" has the healing powers capable of handling minor injuries such as sprints and dislocations.
There is another category of practitioners who achieve their healing powers through ancestry.
Practitioners are restricted and forbidden to eat cooked chicken and kola nuts with non practitioners, as this reduces their spiritual powers and ability.
Once the Manyi receives a patient, she immediately begins the process of collecting the necessary herbs and materials needed for the treatment. Before a patient is treated, the Manyi inflicts a similar fracture on a chicken and ties it somewhere in the same room. That means, the chicken would suffer a broken leg if the patient in question has a broken leg. By carefully observing the medical progress of the chicken, the Manyi determines what sort of treatment tube given to the patient. In the event of death, the patient has the responsibility of providing the Manyi with a new chicken.
The fractured part of the body is covered with a blanket and exposed over a boiled clay pot of herbs. Clay has the ability of storing heat, while the use of a blanket helps retain heat within the fracture. Holding the fractured leg over the heated pot, she periodically releases heat as she massages and aligns the bones in their right direction. The aligned bones are then wrapped in a roll of bandage, after which an array of small horizontal sticks are tied around the fracture. To maintain an accurate alignment after treatment, some bags of sand are put around the fractured leg. The same exercise is repeated through out the whole period of treatment which normally last for a period of 3 months. During the entire period of treatment, the patient is forbidden to have sexual intercourse and to greet irregular visitors. The reason being that some cunning visitors may possess evil spirits capable of causing pains and prolong treatment. Immediately the chicken begins hoping about, the Manyi provides her patient with a walking stick cut from the forest, for him to undertake a similar attempt. Treatment is extremely painful, as most practioners oppose the use of anesthetics and pain killers.
At the end of the treatment, a send off party is organized in honor of the patient; the "sarakar".It is also an occasion for the "manyi" to seek material and financial payment from her patient or relatives.
Before the advent of the market economy, there was no financial transaction between the Manyi and the patient as such services were purely humanitarian in nature.
Unlike fractures, a simple procedure is needed to treat sprints and dislocations.
As the Manyi massages the sprint, she spits from time to time, in a shower - like manner particles of chewed kola nut from her mouth on to the surface of the sprint or dislocation. At the end of the massage, she expels the patient’s pains into the wilderness by slightly hitting three times her right fingers on the ground.
The geographical position of Alimoh makes it a good breeding spot for parasites, causing malaria, typhoid, sleeping sickness and yellow fever.Moreso, measles and small pox are a common health problem suffered by children under the age of 5. Despite the advancement of western medicine, locals continue tobe perplexed with the mystery of convulsion, that often attack children with high fever.
Herbalists therefore offer a traditional cure to children suffering from recurrent convulsion attacks.
The requirements needed for treating a child suffering from convulsion is simple and include such items as; a bottle of palm oil, a chicken, a few coins and a loin cloth. It is believed that a swell in either side of the Childs stomach is the principal cause of convulsion. That explains why an herbalist examines his patient to find out the position of the swell. Using a sharp blade or knife, the herbalists creates some small vertical cuts on the Childs stomach before applying a strong mixture of herbs and "wild pepper".
In an almost simultaneous action, as a clay pot of herbs is being boiled, seven stones burn under the flame of fire. A sacrifice is then offered to the ancestors by dropping into the pot of herbs, blood taken from a chicken’s teos.He then proceeds to rub the child with palm kennel oil. It is believed that palm kennel oil reduces a child’s body temperature during a fever.
Carrying his patient in between his laps, the Childs stomach is exposed to the steam coming from the boiled pot of herbs. To further contain the illness, within intervals, one of the stones is released from the fire and dropped into the pot of herbs. It is a painful treatment that has left so many children weeping under the thick blanket of steam.
There is however an alternative solution in handling emergency cases of convulsion. Firstly, the child is made to drink a substantial amount of palm kennel oil"manyaga", and then rubbed with it. Holding a child from the legs, with the head directly facing a pit toilet, he is exposed to the smell of a pit toilet.Dispite the presence of western medicine, this method remains a first aid remedy to most parent who can’t afford the high cost of procuring tablets.
Snake bites are a common problem suffered by farmers and children playing in fields. Most herbalists inherit from their ancestors, containers of palm kennel oil, mixed with the fat and oil of poisonous snakes, caterpillars and centipedes which is then used to treat bites. Once Applied on a bite, a dark liquid believed tobe the pioson oozes from the wound.
Equally, the tooth of a viper could be used to incise an abscess before applying the substance mentioned above. Despite the usefulness of such techniques, they have remained a medium through which the local man contracts contagious diseases as H.I.V and A.I.D.S.For instance, a single blade or a vipers tooth could be used to incise the abscess of different patients.
By breathing through the mouth, at an angle of a mud house, is thought to relief the pains associated with sore throat. This treatment is more effective at the initial stages of a sore throat, and should be in the evenings, when mud houses expel a warmth flavor of air.
Mat roofs serve as a venue where children deposit their fallen teeth and in return ask the gods for a new one. Backing and using his right hand, a child throws his fallen tooth on a thatched roof, and then goes away without looking back. Any procedural mistake is thought to anger the gods and delay the growth of a permanent tooth.
To cure chronic tonsillitis, a patient needs to drink a hot grey liquid obtained when, red charcoal is cooled into a small quantity of water held in a heo.Once repeated from time to time, the patient gets relief from all pains and symptoms.Tonsilitis could also be cured by chewing and swallowing the bitter watery stem of a plantain sucker.
To cure frontal headache, an herbalists normally transfers his patient’s ailments into a mature plantain stem. While slightly hitting the patients head against a plantain stem, he calls on the names of past ancestors to assist in the transfer and healing process.
Children are then restricted to play around this area, as a fatal frontal headache could still transfer from the stem into a child. The leaves of the plantain stem are then expected to wither, probably resulting to zero yields. This serves as proof of the effectiveness of the treatment.
A mixture of garlic, onions and wild honey is thought to cure a simple cough and influenza. Equally, tea made from fibregrass, mango, pawpaw, and guava leaves is drunk to alleviate a cold and a mild fever. A few drops of wild honey into the nostrils helps clear a catarrh. In like manner, repeatedly, a few drops of sugar water or tonic help in the cure against conjunctivitis.
Equally, fungus infections on the fingers and toes could be cured by applying a few drops of a white milky substance obtained from a cactus tree. Cactus trees are also thought to deter snakes, strikes from lightening and evil spirits.
To reduce the dangers associated with puberty, mothers often seek to hinder the first breast protrusions of their daughters. To do this, a warm pepper stone is occasionally used to massage the girl’s chest. It is hoped that little girls with breast are more likely to attract men, engage in sex and subsequently get pregnant. Good mothers are judged from the upbringing of their siblings and pre-marriage pregnancy is considered a blow to the family’s reputation and morals.
By dissolving goat dung in water, farmers produce a mild poisonous liquid which is then used to deter goats from eating the leaves of young plants; plantain and cassava leaves.
The absence of veterinary medicine, have meant an alternative local remedy to save livestock. Moreover, the use of domestic animals as pigs and chickens in traditional rituals in Alimoh has a long history before the advent of colonization.
With such simple items as a blade or knife, water and a mixture of ash and salt, an animal could be castrated in Alimoh.
The scrotum is washed with water before receiving two small cuts to extract the testicles.With the aid of a blade, the two main veins connecting the testices to the body are gradually worn out and disintegrated to avoid bleeding. The scrotum is then washed with warm water to clear away the stains of blood.
A good quantity of ash mixed with salt is then stuffed into the scrotum to prevent any infections.
There exist a number of ways through which the peoples of Alimoh protect and revenge against bewitchment. An individual may be protected against an accident, barrenness and sickness, as well as he can revenge the death of a close relative. Thus, to avoid attacks from adversaries and enemies, people seek spiritual protection from powerful magicians called the "ngambeh men". Almost all aspect of life in Alimoh is interwined with suspicion, and spiritualism. In the event of death, an accident and serious sickness, the bereaved family is more interested to find an answer to why it happened, seek protection and avenge on the enermy.However, because the story is always different from one magician to the other, deaths, accidents and serious illnesses have often resulted to accusations, counter accusations, hatred and disunity within the families.
Each medicine man or sorcerer has an old bag called the "abohfueh" which he inherits from the ancestors. It contains the relics of such items as cowries, bones of animals, bark of trees and metals.
Using a knife, a powderish substance is produced by scraping the surface of the different types of bones and the barks of trees. The patient is then asked to gradually lick this substance using his tongue from a grounding stone. The medicine man or sorcerer then baths his patient with herbs and forbids him from sex and shower for the next couple of days. With the strength of his fingers, the herbalists bores and collects the heart of a life chicken, which he then asks his patient to instantly swallow. It is a treatment that leaves most people with a sense of spiritual protection and confidence; invisibility, untouchable and unbreakable. Not even acid or the poison from a python’s bile is strong enough to kill a man after treatment.
There are other less complicated methods used to scare away evil spirits and ill-luck; such as the use of talisman, rings, barks of trees, bags of herbs and liquides.Such objects are often implanted at the windows, doors, under pillows, mattresses and other entrances to the house since it is held that, witches and other bad spirits visit their prey at night through these avenues. There are other individuals who seek spiritual protection and attainment by putting specially prepared rings on their fingers and beads around their waist. Such individuals are thought to possess a strong spiritual power that can enable them subdue and extract the secret plans of their enemies and adversaries.
Putting a black tread around ones hand is thought to deter the evil spiritual powers of mermaids and water creatures. While good mermaids provide their victims with good luck and riches, bad ones simply drown or disappear their victims and have them as husbands. Thus, in the event of concurrent deaths through drowning, the village chief may impose a moratorium on the river for a couple of days and offer a sacrifice to the gods of the river. A town crier may also be dispatched to warn and ask the entire village to tie black threads around their right wrists and to hang bah amah grasses on their doors and windows.
The narration above is based on my personal day to day experience in the community and should not be seen as a remedy and recommendation to any health ailment. The appropriate local authorities should be consulted for any further details.
CHAPTER four
4:1 RITUALS ASSOCIATED WITH MORTALITY:
Among all the traditional festivities, death is the most sorrowful and widely celebrated traditional gathering in Alimoh. Unlike in advanced societies where death is viewed as a natural and closed event, death in Alimoh is a communal responsibility and perrogative.It is against this back drop that recalcitrant villagers who refrain from dead celebrations are fined and flocked in front of the village elders. To give death a meaning, the entire village is prohibited from any socio - economic activities. Moreover, not until the corpse is buried, all the mourners are required to sleep at the compound of the bereaved family. Thus, to accommodate the multitude of mourners, women bring together firewood and foodstuffs and assist in cooking, while the men, using palm branches, Indian bamboos and raffia build temporal shelters and may also provide enough palm wine for the evening.
Certain signals and happenings considered mysterious are thought to warn locals of an imminent ill-happening. For example, the landing of an Owl near a house could be interpreted as ill luck and advance notification of the death of a family member. Of the same importance, is the shrieking sound made by wild cats and dogs at night. Also, because witches and wizards are capable of transforming into Owls, individuals with spiritual powers and firearm shot at them with the intention of destroying their enermies.Once such an Owl is shot, it is believed that the perpetrator would die within a few days, except he accepts his guilt and be given to swallow the heart of the dead Owl. For this reason, once killed, their carcass is destroyed into pieces, burned and buried into a hidden ground.
To seek an explanation and prevent misfortune, most families have often consulted their medicine men, resulting to certain traditional rituals and the planting of certain objects and herbs in the family compound.
There are a number of traditional ways through which obituaries are transmitted within and without the village. Unlike the use of modern communication systems such as telephones and air wireless, communication is mainly through the beating of drums, gongs and peculiar mouth sounds. With the use of these systems, the entire village could be rallied within a relatively short period of time, as each person upon receiving a massage, acts as a transmitter through mouth sounds to the other. Due to the close interaction and interdependence of village life, villagers take so little time to know the victim of death.
There are several traditional customs performed during the period of weeping and mourning. For example, for family members to distinguish themselves from ordinary sympathizers, they tie loin cloths around their waist, go bare footed, wear some of the diseased dresses and carry his walking stick around.
Furthermore, after burial, the belongings of the diseased such as cloths, shoes and watches are distributed to close family members; a link between the dead and the living.
As close family members; widows sit on the floor near the corpse, they speak to and ask the death such questions as "you have disgraced the family? your friends are looking for you?, who will take care of the children?
The duration and type of traditional ritual performed during death can be differentiated between three age groups; 0 - 12, 13 - 70 years and the aged 70+.Unlike the death of the working age group, little mourning and rituals are performed at the death of young children and the aged. People within the cohort of the working age, play an indispensable role in acting as economic life wires to their immediate and extended families.
Because children, who die at birth, are considered mysterious, tradition forbids mourning and requires that they be buried instantly. To show exercise resentment and dissatisfaction to such births, parents sometimes insert facial cuts on the corpse of presumed evil babies(disabled children are treated in the same way).Because of the spiritual ability of these children to be born more than once, this cuts help families identify them and seek quick solutions. It is also held that these children possess two sacred eyes capable of seeing that which is not physical. Thus, to destroy this link and stop nightmares (screaming at night), these children are sometimes revered and taken to witch doctors. In a bid to pay to cajole, and appease these children, they
Receive such respectful names as Tolefac, Folefac, Agendia and the names of late Fon and chiefs. If appropriate traditional measures are not taken, these children die, become disabled or bewitch their parents; illnesses and misfortune.
It is generally a taboo for children to see their images in the mirror; as it is believed that, children may establish some kind of a contact with their friends of the outer world.
There are many ways in which traditional doctors cast away evil spirits from children. For example whipping a child with an old broom and tying beads of cowries and coins around his waist is thought by some herbalists to disconnect the link between a child and the outer world; a link blamed for infant mortality. It is also forbidden for these children to see the corpses of witches and wizards, as this may re-establish their link with the underworld and cause illness.
In the past, downsydrome and disabled children were considered an evil human form of a python. It was also a misfortune and disgrace for a couple to bear such children. Because it was thought that these children could transform at night into dangerous pythons, most herbalists advised parents to abandon them at the bank of rivers. It was therefore expected that, at rising tides, these children would be swept away.
Such traditional practices will substantiate the fact that, the peoples of the earlier societies were crippled by ignorance, illiteracy and hostility. It also reveals some of the positive changes in the fields of health, education and technology which colonization brought to the traditional African society. Despite this new status quo, the government has failed to bring the much needed socio-economic and political changes capable of creating positive sub-cultures.
The death of people within the age cohort of 13-70 is often met with grief and traditional festivals and rituals. Such celebrations normally go on for a period of about two weeks and require that close relatives assemble at the home or family of the diseased.
The method and duration of mourning also varies with the cause and way of death. The death of old men has always been an opportunity for family members to gather4 and discusses other family issues. It is also an occasion of colorful feasting where such rare traditional dances as the"akohnjang and nkang” are performed.
It is considered evil and mysterious to die in an accident or to commit a suicide. Accidents are either caused by ones involvement in a sacred society (locally called nyongo) or influenced by ones enemies or disgruntled ancestors. Because of the traditional implication of such deaths, it is forbidden to lay these corpses into a house, and for family members to cry and drum.
To protect and counter further deaths, family members always consult a powerful magician to perform the traditional ritual of cleansing called "ndoh"; bad luck. The ritual of "ndoh" is a time consuming exercise and include such items as palm oil, palm wine, firewood, a sheep, a dog and specially prepared herbs. In order to get the much needed spiritual strength, the magician spends the night before the actual rite meditating and invoking the spirits of the gods. A pile of firewood with a puppy in a basket4 at its center (and the dresses worn during the accident) is set ablaze as the magician observes and interprets the direction of the smoke. Marching in a single file, in an order of traditional seniority or age, relatives deposit the remains of the burn into a nearby river or stream and walk away without looking at the direction of the river.
To be cleansed, all relatives are required to drink blood directly from the neck of a slaughtered sheep.
The "ndoh" is a traditional festival which has left many families with a sense of security, comfort and hope. Families equally belief that, through this ritual, the dead is set free from the evil sacred society, where he was expected to work without compensation.
Ancestors have also been held responsible for such unprecedented deaths as accidents and suicides. Ancestors may trigger death to show their dissatisfaction in the event of unapproved inter-tribal/racial marriage, egoism, land dispute or refusal to ascent to power. In which case, the spirits of the ancestors must be consulted and appeased through the offering of sacrifices; palm wine and egusi.It should be known that, the head of the clan keeps the skull of the ancestors in a Sacred location, upon which the sacrifice is performed.
Using mainly rudimentary tools and local techniques, under extreme unhygienic conditions, some herbalists operate and examine the organs of the corpse, - local post-mortem. Based on the judgment of the herbalists, a cause would be associated with death.
Before death is blamed on an external source, the elders of the clan must first of all scrutinize clan members through the traditional ritual of the "njoh" meaning to swear. Family members have always been accused in the introduction of relatives into evil sacred societies called "nyongho" for their own financial and political gains. In an orderly fashion, standing and facing the corpse with the ----- in one hand, each individual proves his innocence by asking the death to avenge on him within a period of two weeks. Through such practices, suspects have been able to gain their pride and prove their innocence before the community. There have also been cases where suspects where subjected to certain unhygienic practices such as drinking water collected after a corpse is washed. Though not documented, such practices might have contributed to the spread of such diseases as cholera, small pox and measles that lead to a high mortality rate in the past.
The lack of medical facilities, led a mortuary has meant an alternative way in the preservation of corpses for distance relatives. At the event of death, a corpse may be preserved against the normal wake keeping period of two days to wait for the arrival of some important far away relatives. Because of this traditional prerogative, incompliance has resulted to fines and the exhumation of corpses.
To clean and give a good smell to a corpse, it is washed with water and fever grass before being suspended and stocked between plantain stems. Plantain stems have a rich cool water storage that keeps a corpse cool and send flies and other insects away. Before putting a corpse into a coffin, an opportunity is given to debtors and creditors to speak to the dead about their financial dealings. In such a way, the bereaved family would know their debtors and creditors. The situation has drastically changed with the wide spread of medical units throughout the country. Families have now realized the necessity to quickly burry corpses to avoid the spread of contagious diseases such as cholera, small pox and dysentery.
It is the tradition that the corpses of nobles, family heads and chiefs living in the coastal towns be transported to the village for burial. However, because of the high cost of transportation and long socio-economic ties, most elders have preferred their corpses buried in alien lands. Because certain reverted traditional rituals and ceremonies such as the "kohgang" dance are performed only in the village and to certain individuals, clan members have always insisted on transporting certain corpses. In order to appease the dead and prevent retaliation, a special traditional forum is created whereby family members explain to the dead their reason for such a change. From time to time during the journey, the entourage stops to offer words to the dead.
The decision to change a person’s place of burial is thought to cause ill luck and misfortune.
The mourning of a beloved family member normally has a minimum period of one year, after which close relatives are required by custom to dress only in black. Equally, after burial, they are expected to skin their head with the use of a blade. Mourning is expressed in such a way that even an outsider would easily know who is mourning. Mourning could be overlooked only at the request of the death; for example, most old people reduce or forbid mourning after their death. There is also the general belief that any mourning that exceeds the generally accepted period would in turn bring the family ill-luck.
Mourning is officially ended with traditional ceremony called the "befindroh”; an occasion of traditional feasting, the settlement of spoils and the introduction of the next of kin. This is normally after a period of one year within which a traditional feast is organizes to forget the death and move forward with life.
CHAPTER five
5:1 SOCIO-POLITICO AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT:
As stated earlier, Alimoh is part of the current Lebialem Division of the South West province of Cameroon. But for the people of Bamumbu, with a slight tongue difference, the entire administrative division of Lebialem speaks the same dialect called Bangwa, and has the same traditional rituals and culture.
Unlike other poverty srikened remote areas of Africa with international attention, press censorship in Cameroon has been counter productive to exposing the plights of the Rural-man and in bringing the international assistance needed. Despite the numerous government promises, Lebialem is among the least developed administrative entity of Cameroon. Despite its huge agricultural and population potential, it took the Cameroon government a decade to officially declare Lebialem a division. There are several historical, cultural and political reasons why the peoples of Lebialem are neglected upon.
As Cameroon is no exemption to the problems of the European partition of Africa, so is Lebialem at the cross road of a cultural identity. Of the six divisions (Fako, Meme, Ndian, and Manyu) comprising the South West province, only Lebialem has an alien culture synonymous to the western province (French Cameroon) and to the North West province. As a result of this cultural differences, the peoples of the coastal towns; the so called "Sawa” with resources accounting for about 65% of country’s G.N.P refer to "Bangwa man" as a grass Lander and alien. In much the same way as the Nazis against the Jews, so are the problems of the South West province blamed on the Bangwa man. They have been accused of egocentrism and for controlling a good proportion of coastal land and businesses. As a result, politicians and intellectuals from Lebialem have been discriminated upon in holding key governmental positions representing the interest of the South West province. Such sentiments were expressed during the South West Elite Association (S.W.E.L.A) general assembly meeting that was held in Meanji to elect a new S.W.E.L.A secretary general. Despite a landslide victory for the candidate from Lebialem, a break away rival pro-government faction,
Immediately announced the creation of an S.W.E.L.A 2; accentuating a legal fight. Backed by the government controlled judiciary, an injunction was impacted on the activities of both groups.
Most building structures in Lebialem are traditionally constructed using rudimentary materials and tools; mud, mat, Indian bamboos, cutlasses and diggers. Moreover, houses in the village are constructed through communal labor and effort. The houses are rectangular in shape, fenced and usually occupy a good portion of land wherein food and cash crops are planted for domestic as well as for commercial use. The head of the family normally occupies the central hut called the "ndia amah" with his wife’s in adjoining huts.
Unlike in towns, household items are most locally made and costless since most village men are craftsmen. For instance, mattresses are constructed during the dry season, using dried grass while mud and wood are often being used in the construction of beds and simple furniture’s respectively. As the floor of most mud houses is uncemented, water is sprinkled daily to reduce dust and create a cool atmosphere. The renovation of the huts is done immediately the first drops of rain indicating the coming of the raining season set in. In most cases, the mat is completely changed or doubled to prevent licks.
Like any other village, Lebialem has its own traditional dishes which are relatively inexpensive and easy to cook. The "abeeh nchiey" is the most delicious and popular meal in Alimoh.Though pounded cocoyam is widely used, abeeh could also be prepared from fomented cassava tubers, gari or pounded yams. The absence of electricity, talk less of modern kitchen utensils has meant that each family owns a mortar and a pestle for pounding cocoyam into fufu.To prepare the nchiey, a good quantity of the fresh leaves and stems of the pumpkin plant are harvested, washed, sliced and boiled. The squeezed vegetable, Cray fish and/or dried fish "mbongah" are then fried in palm oil, after which wild fresh pepper and salt are added to the sauce. After washing the hands and having a small quantity of the nchiey at the side of the mouth,
Balls of fufu (an average of 5 balls) are being swallowed without chewing. On natives have found it difficult to march the small amount of the nchiey sauce with the huge bowl of fufu.
In the absence of the nchiey; as during the dry season, the "ngapsa" (white beans) is eaten as a substitute. After beans is boiled, washed and drained of water, (boiled beans water is thought to cause stomach nausea) a small quantity of beans is extracted, grounded and used as a thickening agent. The grounded and ungrounded beans are then added to fried fresh tomatoes and onions and allowed to cook for about thirty minutes. Other ingredients as Cray fish, smoked fish, pepper and salt are also added to the sauce. Besides serving the ngapsa with fufu, it could also be eaten with boiled plantains, cassava, yams and sweet potatoes.
The majority of Alimoh depends on subsistence agriculture and hunting for livelihood. The years after independence saw most people diverting and depending on the cultivation of cocoa and coffee for income. With very little government assistance and relying basically on rudimentary tools, the living standards of farmers have failed to go beyond the poverty line. Farmers still cannot afford good medical care and education for their siblings. No doubt, the lack of a 2$ note to procure Nivaquine or charmoquine tablets could cause the life of a farmer.
To supplement feeding and income, families keep domestic animals as goats and pigs and engage in hunting using traps and locally made riffles. As the Fon of Lebialem has traditional claim over all lions and tigers, hunters are required to bring such catches to the palace. In the palace, the animal is first skinned (chiefs and Fon seat on tiger and lion skins) and the meat carefully distributed among the council notables with certain parts and entrails going to specific individuals. On the other hand, the hunter receives a traditional title for bravery and may have a seat in the "amaah".
Equally, no individual is allowed to singly butcher and eat the meat of a python alone. Once killed, the skin is extracted (used in drums), the meat distributed and under strict supervision the bile deposited into a pit toilet. It is feared that, when fallen into bad hands, python bile could be used in poisoning food and water probably causing death and illness. Python fat is extracted and used as local medicine. (See chap.3.2)
Like most urban towns in the developing countries, the rapid transformation of Lebialem into an urban conglomerate is coming at a cost. With a relatively improved health care and a high fertility rate, the population of Lebialem has been on a constant rise, against insufficient provision of socio-economic infrastructures and services. The administrative unit of the then Fontem Sub Division was upgraded to a Division without the provision of electricity, pipe borne water and the construction of schools, hospitals and roads to meet the additional services. With little help, locals took upon themselves the responsibility of providing accommodation and offices to the additional workers who were pouring into the divisional capital Meanji. As that is not enough, parents have often assisted local school authorities(Parents Teachers Association;P.T.A) in hiring additional teachers and providing furnitures to schools.In Cameroon, institutions are often being created without the necessary logistic and infrastructures needed. A glaring example is the government’s creation of a Technical College in the town of Muyuka without classrooms and offices.
But for some scattered and unsupervised building projects in the towns of Yaounde and Douala, the rest of Cameroon unplanned. Most of the housing projects flopped because of the government’s short sightedness in understanding the socio-psychological needs of the people. The government’s failure in providing housing to the populace has left the planning of towns and houses in the hands of individuals. The result is the juxtaposition of houses, a poor drainage and sewage system; breeding insects and subsequently spreading diseases such as Malaria, Typhoid, Dysentery and Cholera. There is rarely a rural area in Cameroon with an effective waste collection and disposal system. Even where there is one, as in cities, the collection and recycling of dirt is sporadic in nature and inconsistence, leading to dirt heaps and the fill of gutters. With Environmentalists concentrating their efforts and criticisms on the cities, the rural areas are increasingly becoming unsaved havens, contaminated by cellophanes, zinc, alluminium and iron. Old imported items as cars, bicycles and metal utensils are simply abandoned in open land and allowed to wear into the soil.
Faced with little government financial allocation, the responsibility of handling garbage and improving existing transport facilities in the villages have gradually moved from the municipal council to the village council.
This is done through a monthly compulsory work program called The Village Community Labour.On this given day, small groups of men under the supervision of elders, are assigned to specific village projects. They are often required to clean the village cemetery, fill potholes, cut grass, and may have to transport stones and sand to a village construction site. Private businesses are also expected to close their doors until 12 noon.
Based on a rigorous check, the Elders pass the names of non conformists to the village council, which in turn summons these individuals to a hearing. Punishment rages from flogging to purchasing palmwine.Women are equally expected to weed their compounds and gardens.
The rugged and mountainous landscape of Lebialem, coupled with precipitation during the raining season, has resulted to soil erosion, and mud slides. Moreover, unlike in the past where settlement was dispersed in nature, the clustering of people (to benefit from the socio-economic services) have only accentuated the clearing of soil cover and the building of houses on difficult terrain. That explains why the dangers of mudslides have increase resulting to deaths and the lost of property. The absence of a local provincial and divisional weather station and an emergency rescue team only adds to the plight of the locals.
But for Meanji, other pockets of settlement; Azi (the seat of the paramount Fon of Fontem), Nwehcheng, Nyui are void of any health units. Moreover, there are no ambulances and roads connecting distant hamlets to the main hospital at Meanji. As with other administrative units, the Government General Hospital at Meanji, with a population range of about five thousand potential patients has an insufficient supply of basic equipments, materials and is served by a single inexperience General practitioner(M.D).
With no alternative, and to save the life of patients, most M.Ds handle surgical operations and prescriptions beyond their scope and competence.For instance, to consult a dentist or a gynaecologist, locals must travel to Buea; the provincial capital of the South West Province, undertaking a painful journey of about twenty hours on extreemly bad roads.
Despite its huge population, administrative, political and agricultural potential, Lebialem still continues to exist without such financial institutions as banks and insurance companies. The fact that Lebialem is almost cut off from the rest of the country, coupled with its extremely poor social and economic infrastructures has acted as a deterrence to companies wishing to do business in Lebialem. As a result, both the indigenes and the civil servants travel monthly to distant Administrative Units for their financial transactions. Even so, poor banking and government policies have often resulted to bankruptcy, thus scaring investors and clients alike. It is against this backdrop that the "njanghi" came into existence; after the economic crisis that hid Cameroon in the late 1980s.Though illegal, most njanghis have a set of By-Laws which is used to guide its operations.
Based on a consensus, the members of the meeting decide on a time framework and a fix sum of money tobe routinely contributed, and given to each member. Though the order of the recipients is determined through a draw, there exist exceptions in the case that a member has an urgent problem; taking his child to the hospital, paying tuition for the children. Conversely, to ensure equity, and good faith, some untrustworthy members are oblarged to get the last positions.
Still within the realms of the Family Meeting, are the "trouble Bank" and the "farm njanghis".To Trouble Bank operates as an Emergency Relief Fund against sudden deaths, sickness and accidents. Though members can periodically save money with the treasurer, lump sum withdrawals are not permitted. Savers get their entire savings at the end of the year, to enable them meet the expenses of celebrating the Christmas and New Year festivals. Though the trouble bank is meant exclusively for emergencies; the financing of yearly family gatherings (aimed at acquainting children with each other) are drawn from this fund. Only on very exceptional cases are members allowed to borrow from this fund. The farm njanghi is a group of women who jointly and routinely work on the farms of members on a given schedule. The farm njanghis are well known for gossiping, conversations and hardwork.It is worth noting that men equally occassionally operate similar work groups at the peak of coffee and cocoa harvest.
The government’s failure in meeting its developmental obligations has made Lebialem one of the most backward towns in Cameroon. No doubt, Lebialem witnesses a high rate of emigration; as young people seek economic and social fortunes in bigger towns and cities. While the rural towns seem to be witnessing a drop in agricultural productivity, immigration too is having its toll on the cities. The destination of most rural-urban migrants has been to the city of Douala; the economic capital of Cameroon. Such an uncontrolled migration has lead to the construction of ghettos, increase crime and pressure on the limited social amenities.
There are a varieties of ways through which the government could deter the migration of the active population from the rural areas;
recognize the rural areas as contributors the Gross domestic and National product; the G.D.P and G.N.P.
based on specified needs, provide rural areas with sufficient agro-subsidiary and technical assitance.Farmers should be encouraged to increase their savings through increase output. For this to be achieved, farmers cultivating marginal lands should be provided with subsidized fertilizer and farm equipments as tractors, cutlasses and hoes. About 98% of the farms in Cameroon are cultivated manually using rudimentary tools.
giving the high illiteracy rate of farmers, there is every need for the government to dispatch Agro-personnel’s to educate and sensitize rural farmers. In recent times, some Non- Governmental organizations have taken steps in this direction with far reaching results. Today, most farmers have increased their earnings through the diversification of crops and or through the practice of animal husbandry. Only through such campaigns, would farmers be willing to abandon long held
Traditional farm practices; as the burning of farmland before tilling.
the government should assist local village councils in the setting up of small scale agricultural production units; corn, coffee, cocoa and gari mills. For any project to succeed in the rural area, the local community must be active in the management and the decision making body of the project (they must identify a link between their community and the project).For example, the setting of a large modern coffee mill at Lebialem would benefit the locals than an Italian shoe company with inputs and management coming entirely outside Lebialem. Truly speaking, politically motivated projects in rural areas actually benefit the educated urban rich, with devastating consequences on the rural ecosystems and way of life.
The government should embark on rural development; upgrading the social amenities and creating tax free zones in rural areas. Farm to market, as well as rural-urban, rural-rural roads, wireless communication systems, hospitals, financial institutions should equally be set up in rural areas.