Academical Dress in New Zealand
A note on materials
The material from which a gown, hood or cap is made often reflects the rank of the wearer, with the more costly the material traditionally limited to doctors. Academical gowns for all other degrees are generally made of stuff, which means cloth, especially woollen.(1) Stuff cloth today generally means spun rayon or one of the many other artificial fibres, rather than the traditional Russel cord,(2) or the less heavily corded poplin.(3)
Generally, at Oxford, only the doctor's were permitted gowns of black silk, or scarlet silk or cloth.(4) In later years master's and bachelor's of the higher faculties wore gowns of silk or poplin. Bachelors and Masters of Arts wore gowns of Russel cord,(5) and undergraduates wore cotton gowns.
The material of gowns and hoods for graduates is generally prescribed by the dress regulations. However, availabilility, cost and durability of the newer synthetic materails means that even where a specific material is specified, it is likely that a man-made fibre is substituted for the original natural fibre. The material for the gowns and hoods of graduates is not specified by the University of Waikato, but the officers wear robes of satin, a description referring to the weave rather than the fibre. Victoria University of Wellington prescribes silk generally. At the University of Otago the officers wear what is specifically called pure silk (some of which is further defined by weave, as damask(6) or grosgrain(7) silk). Graduates however use silk or silk-like fabric, although silk is specified for the hoods of the higher doctorates.
At Massey University silk damask, with taffeta trimming is prescribed for the Chancellor, Pro-Chancellor and Vice-Chancellor, while the registrar has silk ottoman and taffeta. The material for hoods are not however prescribed, although the border of the hood of a bachelor with honours is said to be silk. At Lincoln University officers' robes are of grosgrain, with satin facings, but whether they must be of silk is not specified. Undergraduate gowns have satin facings. The hoods of doctors of science are of silk. At the University of Canterbury the officers wear damask (plain weave silk for the registrar). The material for gowns and for non-doctoral hoods is generally not specified, but is of course the cloth usually called stuff.
Traditionally, the hoods were lined with silk. However, satin (meaning acetate) is now normally used in place of the original silk or taffeta.(8) For doctors, it is often made or silk or satin. In the United States of America bachelor's wore gowns and hoods made of cotton poplin, master's of cotton, silk or worsted (now also usually cotton poplin), and doctor's of silk.
The silk of course today is usually ribbed rayon rather than the real corded Ottomon silk used in the past. Ottoman is a heavy, plain corded weave with broad warp ribs, used for coats and trimmings. Satin or taffeta was formerly specified as a substitute for silk at the University of Auckland, but satin is now generally specified in place of silk, which was not so readily available. Silk-based fabric is rarely used in modern academical dress, although it continues to be specified for hood lining and for the facings and hoods of doctors.
The fabric, whether of cotton, wool, or silk, or of one of the many synthetic and partly-synthetic fibres now available, is generally woven in one of the three principle weaves. These are the plain (also called taffeta),(9) the twill,(10) and the satin.(11) There are also the dobby and jacquard weaves, such as brocades, and the pile weaves, as velvets(12) and plushes.(13) Variations of the plain weave, in which each thread of warp is interlaced with a filling thread, or weft, include basket weave(14) (not as durable), rib weave (rep, poplin, grosgrain, Russel cord, taffeta). Variations of the twill weave include garberdines, jean and drill. Satin weaves, the most fragile and costly, include damask, crepe and satin. Most academic dress is of plain weave fabric, with the more complex weaves for more senior ranks.
The most valuable traditional material was silk. Always relatively expensive, it today constitutes only very small fraction of the world apparel fibre production (0.2% in 1979).
It has strength (slightly less than cotton), smoothness, lustre, moisture absorption. It has elasticity and resilience similar to wool, though not quite as good. It also has good resistance to abrasion. The availability of spun and thrown silk yarns are advantages. Its filaments are of a very fine texture. It handles and drapes well. Heat resistance is fair, and it does not burn easily.
Disadvantages, other than cost, are that silk has a tendency to yellowing, is alkali and perspiration sensitive, and has poor sunlight resistance. It has a similar chemical sensitivity to wool. It needs very careful treatment. Regenerated cellulose fibres are relatively delicate in the wash. Silk garments should be washed regularly as human perspiration can degrade the fibroin of silk.
Wool was the dominant fabric material till the improvement of the cotton-spinning industry in the late eighteenth century. It now holds a relatively small proportion of world apparel fibre production (amounting to 5% in 1979).
Wool is moderately strong, with fibres 50 to 400mm long, of a fine to coarse texture. It has the advantage of elasticity, good insulating properties, good absorption, and good affinity for dyes. Handle is soft, warm, resilient and it drapes and tailors well. It is less sensitive to acids. Resilience and elasticity is very good, with moderate abrasion resistance. Heat resistance is moderate, and it does not burn readily.
Disadvantages are felting, shrinkage, alkali sensitivity. Wool is much more sensitive to heat, moisture, and chemicals than cotton. It has no resistance to moths unless treated. It is moderately expensive, being more expensive than cotton, but it is less versatile. This is restricted because of physical and chemical limitations and its higher cost. Wool fibres need a much more complicated processing than cotton, because of their length. It is easily seriously damaged by alkali. Wool is attacked by mildews which may damage and ultimately destroy the fibres. Regenerated cellulose fibres are relatively delicate in the wash.(15)
Cotton supplemented wool and linen after the seventeenth century, and although superseded since the Second World War by man-made fibres, it still amounts to 47% of world apparel fibre production (1979).
It is very versatile, stable chemically, resistant to alkalis, and absorbent. It is of moderate cost. It is sunlight resistant. Handle is soft, cool to the touch. It is strong, fibres 10 to 55mm long, of a fine texture. Fairly resilient, with good resistance to abrasion. Heat resistance is good, but it burns readily.
Cotton has little elasticity (creases easily), and poor acid resistance. It is liable to bacteria and fungi (mildew). Whites may be laundered at any temperature. A grey tinge may develop after use and laundering due to the presence of minute soil particles in the fibres' lumen or central canal. These cannot be removed. Only thorough laundering and rinsing will prevent the grey tinge from developing. Laundering before the fabric is too soiled also greatly assists.(16)
Rayon, used commercially since the 1920s, was joined by nylon in the following decade, and polyester in the 1950s. The range of artificial fibres, and combinations, is today very great, and provides enormous scope for robe-makers. Spun rayon, now called viscose, although cheaper than a woollen fabric, is a somewhat bodiless substance, and garments made from it rapidly lose their shape. Modern academic gowns are usually made of 65% polyester and 35% viscose rayon.(17) These are more durable fabrics than viscose alone. Some stuffs are made of 55% polyester and 45% wool blends.(18) These are less durable than an all-wool fabric, but have a better handle, and are more comfortable than those with a viscose blend.
Formerly called rayon, or artificial silk, viscose amounts to 9% of the world apparel fibre production (1979). It accounted for some three-quarters of world man-made fibre production in the 1950s, until supplemented by nylon, and later, polyester.
It has a strength between wool and cotton. Moisture absorbency is very good, and it has a reasonable elasticity, and a moderate resistance to abrasion. Handle is soft, rather limp, cool to touch. It is very versatile. Its low price, absorbency, smoothness, variations in lustre are important advantages. It is of moderate cost, being cheaper than acetate, and more common. Fibres can be of any length required, and have a fine to coarse texture as required. Chemically it is almost identical with cotton.
Disadvantages are that it has poor durability, a plastic nature (it creases easily), poor alkali and acid resistance, a low wet strength- when wet it looses half its strength. Heat resistance is moderate, but it burns readily. Regenerated cellulose fibres are relatively delicate in the wash. Viscose is attacked by silver-fish.(19)
Cellulose acetate, or acetate, formerly called acetate rayon, amounts to 1% of world apparel fibre production (1979).
It is moderately strong, with fibres of any length as required, and it has a fine to coarse texture as required. It has good elasticity, and fair resistance to abrasion, though nor quite as good as viscose. Absorbency is fair, and it is much less absorbent than viscose, and more water resistant. It dries rapidly, and does not shrink. It is more dimensionally stable than viscose. It is more resilient, and has a smooth and more silk-like handle. It has a good drape. Sunlight resistance, are advantages. It is a better artificial silk, and less expensive, than viscose.
Disadvantages are that it is heat sensitive, and has poor alkali resistance. It is not quite as strong as viscose, and is sensitive to many types of dry-cleaning solvents. Regenerated cellulose fibres are relatively delicate in the wash. and is a thermoplastic, softening above 120°, melting at 230°. It cannot be heat set. It is not, however, readily flammable.(20)
(Cellulose) Triacetate was introduced in the 1950s.
It is moderately strong, fibres of any length required, and has a fine to coarse texture as required. Absorbency is low. It is drip-dry, and easily washed. Handle is soft, fairly resilient. It has good handle, drape. The whiteness, smoothness are advantages. It is of moderate cost. It has moderately good elasticity, with fair resistance to abrasion. It is a thermoplastic, and can be heat set at 195°. It softens at 200°, but is more heat-resistant than cellulose acetate. It possesses the thermoplastic properties and low moisture absorption that we associate with synthetic fibres, but is considerably cheaper.. It is usually blended with viscose.
Disadvantages are that it is only moderately durable, and easy-care fabrics may not perform as claimed.
Nylon, in some countries called polyamide, is derived mainly from oil. It comprises 11% of world apparel fibre production (1979).
Advantages that it has excellent strength, toughness, durability, smoothness, variations in lustre. Absorbency is very low, and it is drip-dry. It has good abrasion resistance. Nylon is very strong, with fibres of any length required, and has a fine to coarse texture as required. Resilience and elasticity is very good, with excellent resistance to abrasion. It is a thermoplastic and can be heat set. It melts at 250°, but is not dangerously flammable. It is moderately expensive.
Disadvantages are that it is non-absorbent, uncomfortable in close texture, and has a tendency to yellow. Nylon also is alkali sensitivity, and poor all-weather resistance. Handle is not good, being somewhat "glassy", and it is quick to develop static electricity. It is less stable than polyester.(21)
Acrylic amounts to 7% of the world apparel fibre production (1979).
It has fairly strong, with fibres of any length required, though mostly staple. It has a fine to coarse texture as required. Resilience and elasticity are both good, and acrylic has durability and fairly good resistance to abrasion. It has acid, domestic alkali and sunlight resistance. It has a more wool-like handle than nylon and polyester. It is a thermoplastic and can be heat set, but it burns and melts. Being a synthetic fibre, acrylic will improve the durability of any blend where the other fibre is less durable.
Disadvantages are that it is sensitive to heat and moisture, and stretches readily in a warm moist condition. It is moderately expensive. Absorbency is very low as it is hydrophobic.(22)
Polyester, also called dacron, terylene, vycron etc, was introduced from the 1950s. It comprised 17% of world apparel fibre production in 1979.
It is very strong, fibres of any length required, and has a fine to coarse texture as required. It is similar to nylon in strength, elasticity, toughness, which are very good. It has excellent abrasion resistance. Handle is soft, like nylon, but it is not quite as glassy. Polyester has a greater resistance to stretching than nylon, and is also stiffer. It is minimum care, and will rarely need ironing- which should not exceed 135°. It is a thermoplastic and can be heat set. It melts at 260°, but is not dangerously flammable. It has good chemical properties, and a higher resistance to daylight. It is more stable than nylon. It has excellent drip-dry properties, being less absorbent that nylon.
Disadvantages are that it is non-absorbent, uncomfortable in close texture, and has a "plastic" handle. Is more sensitive than cotton for laundering. Because of its hydrophobic nature, it has a poor affinity for dyestuffs. It is moderately expensive.(23)
Abbreviations of the names of New Zealand universities
(1) Woollen fabrics are made from short wool's usually, which is possessed of high felting qualities, and which is carded. Woollen fabrics have a fuzzy, milled or raised surface which hides the weave structure, most clearly seen in blankets. Woollen weave is preferred when really warm clothing is needed. Fine woollens also drape better than the equivalent worsted fabrics. Worsted clothes are made from long lustrous varieties of wool, carded and also combed. Worsted fabric has a clear-cut finish, with the surface smooth and the weave structure clearly and sharply seen. It is preferred for general wear, being more robust.
(2) Russel cord is a kind of rep made from a mixture of cotton and wool. It is a prominently ribbed plain weave fabric, but the true repp, which stands up to hard wear, is not now commonly made. The term cord is now usually used for any fabric of plain weave having prominent ribs, made on the plain weave fine warp and thicker weft principle, and which is coarser and heavier than poplin. The rib runs in the weft direction. It is a very strong fabric. In suiting weights it is made from wool, in furnishing weights from cotton and synthetics. Rib, rep, cord, corded, and repp are terms also used, whose actual meanings vary somewhat.
(3) Poplin is a fine closely woven plain weave showing fine ribs (running widthwise), the best known shirting fabric. Lighter than the similar repp, grosgrain, it is mostly made of cotton, now also rayon. It was originally made with a silk warp, worsted wool weft. The yarn is usually mercercised, with a fine warp and thicker weft yarn, and more warp yarn than weft yarn.
(4) Cloth refers to a particular type of material woven from wool and having a smooth surface and a close dense texture. The term is not synonimous with material or fabric, but is to be distinguished from silk fabrics. At Oxford, for full dress robes, this is described as scarlet superfine cloth. Doctors of Music however wear a magnificent full dress robe of cream silk, with apple blossom embroidery, and facings and sleeves of cherry crimson silk.
(5) In 1750 Cambridge BAs wore robes of prunello or prince's stuff. By 1803 they were of bombazine; Hargreaves-Mawdsley, WN, A History of Academical Dress in Europe until the end of the Eighteenth Century (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1963) 127, 128. Prunello (now more usually prunella) is a strong worsted cloth now often used for the uppers of women's shoes. It was originally silk, and was used for graduates, clergymen's and barrister's gowne. Prince's stuff similar to princetta, a lightweight wool and cotton mix, suitable for warmer climes. Bombazine is a fine twilled fabric usually with silk or rayon warp and worsted filling.
(6) Damask is a rich figured stuff fabric, jacquard-woven with elaborate patterns. Originally of silk, it is now usually of linen, though also of cotton or wool. Damask is used for some official robes.
(7) Grosgrain, also called grogrine, grosgram or grogram, is a fine closely woven heavily corded silk or rayon fabric of a dull lustre. It is more usually of rayon or acetate warp, with a heavy cotton or rayon weft (as filling, and which is entirely hidden) rather than silk. It is used for ribbons, collar facings, and similar. It is sometimes mixed with cotton, and was formerly dyed black for mourning; Beck, William, The Draper's Dictionary (The Warehousemen and Drapers Journal, London, 1886) 155.
(8) Taffeta, or taffaty, was originally the basic plain weave of silk. It was a fine, light, thin twilled silk, usually possessing a high sheen or gloss lustre, introduced into England in the fourteenth century. The name is now generally applied to a thin glossy silk-stuff, or, loosely, to various similar fabrics. Taffeta is finished in a manner that imparts to it the 'rustle' or 'scroop' peculiar to certain types of closely woven, plain silk textures produced from spun silk yarn. Sometimes embellished with a very small brocade or 'float' figuring of warp or weft, it may either be woven from skein-dyed yarn, or else piece-dyed after weaving. Taffeta may be wool, cotton, etc, rather than silk. A wool taffeta is made of fine wool yarn warp and weft, and has a fine and close texture, is of light weight, and with a smooth surface. It is still found as part of the dress of some university officers in its silk-based form.
(9) Also called tabby, taffeta weave, linen weave, cloth weave, checker weave and so on. There is no clearly discernible right or wrong side. It includes batiste, billiard cloth, calico, cambric, canvas, chintz, gauze, grosgrain, handkerchief linen, hessian, holland, lawn, muslin, panama, poplin, and most shirting, taffeta. Some 80% of all fabrics made are plain weave. It is strong and durable, but soils most readily of the principal weaves.
(10) Twill always shows a distinct continuous or discontinuous diagonal line or ridge effect. It includes cashmere, demin, drill, garberdine (which is a closely wovencloth of wool and cotton, used for raincoats), jean, kersey, moleskin, serge, and most tweed. It has an increased bulk, and warmth, and increased strength. However, the weave is more easily worn by abrasion, and is more costly.
(11) Satin is next in importance to taffeta as the basic plain weave of silk. Satin, with an even, smooth and glossy surface was always made of silk, but the term is now applied to many fabrics made on similar principles from cotton, rayon, or acetate, or even to those which merely have a smooth and lustrous finish. It has a thick texture, and has a glossy face and dull back. Satin and similar sheer fabrics from viscose are cheaper than from nylon, polyester or silk. Satin drapes very well, do not wrinkle easily. Sateen is made from a mercerised yarn, and has a smooth, soft lustre, weft-face surface.
(12) Velvet, the most elaborate of the weaves traditionally made from silk, has a short plush pile surface, and is used for the robes of some office-holders, and for the hats of some doctors. Severed threads stand erect in the form of short tufts from a substantial foundation texture of silk, cotton, or other textile material. The best quality is silk, though velvet is now widely reproduced in man-made fibres. If of cotton or mixed cotton and silk imitation it is usually called velveteen, which is actually woven by a distinct method (fustian), in plain or twill weave.
(13) Cotton fabric with a longer pile than velvet or velveteen.
(14) Panama is a plain woven hopsacking (an open-plied yarn) of coarse-yarn basket weave (two or more warp and filling threads interlacing), plain or in two colour, producing effect similar to texture of panama hats. A clear-finished, plain-weave fabric, approximately square in build. Traditionally weight of 5-7 oz/yd² (170-240 gm²). A light-weight all wool material, it is generally used for men's tropical suiting.
(15) A cotton/wool blend, such as "Viyella" of 55% wool, 45% cotton, handles like wool, but is not as durable. A wool/viscose blend appears, handles like wool, but is cheaper. Less durable than an all-wool fabric. Nylon has excellent strength and abrasion resistance and can be used to strengthen wool fabrics. Over 50% synthetic is used to allow heat-set, though this affects handle and appearance. If acetate is added to a wool weave it improves handle, and washing stability in a fabric. Appears, handles like wool, but it is cheaper, though not as durable as all-wool equivalent. Polyester has excellent strength and abrasion resistance and can be used to strengthen wool fabrics. It is "Wash and wear". Over 50% synthetic is used to allow heat-set, though this affects handle and appearance. More wool is more comfortable, and it handles more pleasantly, with a more appealing texture. The lightest fabrics wrinkle and drape less well.
(16) A Cotton/acrylic blend is to improve durability of cotton. Blended with cotton, wool and viscose improve durability and wrinkle resistance. It is more robust than cotton alone.
(17) For example, those from E'tude Classique, official robemakers to the University of Auckland. Polyester gowns from AE Clothier, Cambridge, are of polyester. Ede & Ravenscroft however continue to provide gowns of cotton, cord, and silk.
(18) As the barrister's gowns made by Ballantynes, Christchurch.
(19) Viscose is not resilient, though this may be improved by blending. If added to a weave viscose improves handle and washing stability in a fabric. Viscose/acetate is not as durable as viscose/nylon or viscose/polyester, nor should it be subject to hard wear. If viscose is added to a weave it improves handle, and washing stability in a triacetate fabric. It also makes a fabric more absorbent and comfortable. A viscose/acrylic blend is to improve durability of viscose.
(20) If added to a weave acetate improves handle and washing stability in a fabric.
(21) Nylon may be blended to make fabric more absorbent and softer than nylon alone, and it can be used to strengthen wool fabrics. Nylon adds durability to other fabrics. If viscose is added to a nylon weave it improves handle, and washing stability in a fabric. It is durable, comfortable, easy-care, and may be more wrinkle-resistant than equivalent polyester/cotton blend. It is not as common as viscose/polyester. Nylon may be blended with acetate to make it more absorbent than nylon alone.
(22) For this reason it is often blended with cotton or viscose.
(23) Polyester may be blended to improve versatility. It can be used to strengthen wool fabrics. Blended with polyester, wool makes a fabric more crease resistant (perhaps in 55/45 proportions). This also overcomes its hydrophobic nature and make it more comfortable.
Cotton/polyester, usually in a 65/35 blend, is blended to improve durability and wrinkle resistance of polyester alone. This also overcomes its hydrophobic nature and make it more comfortable. If viscose is added to a weave it improves handle, and washing stability in a polyester fabric. Commonly a 35% viscose/65% polyester blend is used for light-to-medium weight fabric. It is durable, comfortable, easy-care, and may be more wrinkle-resistant than equivalent polyester/cotton blend.