Language

Dear Kryss,

I like your website with so many languages, so many words. You might be interested in my new book,

published by Houghton Mifflin in Boston, ISBN 0-395-95920-9.

It has short essays on one word from each of the different languages that has contributed to English: as well-known as French and as obscure as the Fore language of New Guinea. There are 213 languages, arranged geographically so you travel the world from Europe to Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the Americas.

My etymologies don't always agree with yours . . . but I don't intend this as a quarrel, just an observation.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you. I will certainly check out your book. As for agreement, this is not always possible as there can be many sources of information.

Dear Webmaster,

My name is Kenneth Beare and I am the guide to English as a Second Language at About.com.

About.com is currently the #1 News and Information service on the Web. It is comprised of about 700 Guide sites each devoted to a single topic, complete with Web site reviews, feature articles and discussion areas. One of my principal tasks as guide to ESL, is to choose and review the best sites concerning ESL and ESL related issues.

It has been my pleasure to add your site to my listings under British vs. American English.

The reason for this email is to kindly ask if you could possibly provide a reciprocal link to my site at http://esl.about.com. Below you will find a short description of the site:

English as a 2nd Language at About.com serves as a one stop guide to ESL on the Internet. Instead of the endless lists of links common on other sites, your Guide has meticulously sifted through the Web to bring you the best online resources for ESL teachers, administrators and students.

He has also contributed his own teaching expertise in creating a considerable amount of resources on the subject. What can you expect to find?

KryssTal Reply: I have added the reciprocal link for your excellent resource site.

You forgot the part of speech called INTERJECTIONS!!!

I can't believe forgot that part of speech come on help me here. I'm in the 8th grade and in English I and you don't help me by forgetting a part of speech so please take better care of your website so that it can actually help me.

KryssTal Reply: Oh! I apologise.

The words "8th grade" are not used in England so I don't know how old you are or which level you are studying at. I will add interjections soon.

Good luck with your studies.

Dear Kryss,

I happened upon your extensive website on languages. Would you have a complete listing of the "most spoken languages" link? What was your statistical source for this info? censuses or by general populations of countries?

Thanks for you help.

KryssTal Reply: I got that from the Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Languages.

Dear Kryss,

I'm writing an article for my own role-playing web page about world languages, and I'd very much like to include some material from your pages.

The thrust of the article will be about the radical differences between closely related dialects - how well a character can speak one language may or may not mean that he or she can speak a related one.

I wouldn't be including large portions of your pages, but I would quote them from time to time. I'd also include a link back to your home page. Let me know if that's OK or if you have any reservations.

KryssTal Reply: No problem - I'll put a reciprocal link to your site.

PS Good to see you like Doctor Who :) My sister Kate is a New Adventures author, so I've had something of an exposure myself :)

KryssTal Reply: I've seen her name on some of the books.

How many words are there in the English Language? Which language has the second most? Third most, etc.? I enjoyed your history of the language. In fact, we were discussing this very same topic at supper last night.

KryssTal Reply: The last figure I saw was over 250,000 for English. As for second, I'm afraid I don't know. I'll see if I can find out.

Hope you enjoyed your supper.

Thank you so much. I thought that there were about 250,000, but this person with whom we were eating, said one million. I had to challenge that, but I couldn't remember exactly how many words were in the English vocabulary. I believe that German is second, although they recycle words and add them together to make new ones. Thanks again.

I enjoyed the meal then, and much more so now that I was correct.

What a wonderful website to help me with my third lecture in my UNIV 101 course, Society, Culture, and the Environment. I wish I had seen this earlier in the term. Thanks for the time you put into it! I may put a link to it on my homepage. I've definitely saved it in my favorite places. : )

Geographically,

KryssTal Reply: Thank you, glad I could share with an appreciative audience.

Dear Kryss,

I want to thank you for your wonderfully informative Web site on Languages -- truly my interest!

I have an international home here in Monterey, California, where I house Scholars and foreign born professionals studying English at the Monterey Institute of International Studies.

With this experience, and the combination of many years reading in the field of linguistics (just about everything) -- I've often wanted just to set up a display in my home on the History of the English Language, showing via graphics and other hands- on displays the marvelous progression of events and entrance of words into our tongue.

Then I got to thinking, and you may have the answer to this question: Is there an actual Language Museum somewhere in the world that may have a display on the history and development of various language families and / or English?

It seems to me that there should be a Museum of this sort somewhere. My little city, Monterey, has been designated the Language Capital of the World, since there is so much language activity going on here. If there were no such Museum yet, this would be a great place to begin one.

There should be a gallery of linguists, living and dead, lots about the history of dictionaries, the development over time of the various languages, atlases, globes, my gosh just a wonderful potpourri of linguistic lore.

I give talks in our community on languages to the general public. They just love to fine out about these sorts of things.

Well, you can see I'm a verbal person -- but you seemed to be a good person to ask about the existence of a Language Museum.

Many thanks if you can give me some sort of answer. I've travelled a little, but mostly have been a local lively lady linguist.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you very much for your kind comments

A museum of language sounds an excellent idea. I have never come across one in my travels (70 countries). If you want to set one up that would be great. I would be willing to offer any assistance and you would be welcome to use any materials from my web site.

Thank you for a prompt answer to my question. And thank you also for your generous offer to aid in some way. It's a worthwhile project -- a Language Museum. It would bring together so many facets of language that are now scattered throughout the world.

I just have one more itsy-bitsy question. Are you (or were you) a professional language educator affiliated with a university? You managed to set up a web site on a complex subject that would appeal to the general public. That is definitely an art and a skill. (i.e, you make things "Kryss-tal" clear -- If I think of a real pun for your name related to language I will e-mail you -- it would be a joy -- but your syllables are a challenge!)

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments. As for KryssTal, the Kryss is my first name. Tal is short for Talaat, my better half's name. I am not a qualified language person. I am interested in languages as I travel a lot. Being from a Greek background and having learnt Spanish and studied Latin, I find languages reasonably easy.

My degree is in Chemistry!

To whom this may concern:

Your web site is one, I must say, I have put in my bookmarks! Hopefully, I shall major in historic linguistics and your web site has given me a lot of information I have been looking for! I'm sending this e-mail just to commend you on your excellent web site! Keep up the GREAT work!

KryssTal Reply: Thank you very much for your kind comments. I can leave for my holidays with a smile on my face! Good luck with your studies.

I was dismayed to discover that your wonderful site is no longer accessible to me and my Latin students. Dare I hope that you will expand your band width (whatever that means) and again be available?

KryssTal Reply: My site has exceeded its bandwidth because of high eclipse traffic. I Will sort it out in the next few days. I have just returned from Cornwall where I saw the eclipse.

U.S. gum -- substance chewed an extended period of time for pleasure -- what the British call chewing gum

U.K. gum -- substance used to stick items together -- what the Americans call glue

KryssTal Reply: Excellent - it shall be added (when I get around to it).

can you tell me what the three newest letters of the english language are?

KryssTal Reply: As far as I know they are: J, Q and V.

Hey I just wanted to say that your site totally helped me out!!! I have to do a report on words borrowed from other languages and your site was the only one I could find!! You have no idea how much it helped!!! I got all my word examples from you site!!!!!!!

Thank you soooooooo much!!!

KryssTal Reply: My pleasure entirely.

Used your resourse to complete paper on borrowed English words. Thanks.

KryssTal Reply: You're welcome.

Hi!

My name is Henry Harris and i come from Golden Bay, New Zealand. I am currenlty in the 7th form studying english as a subject and have been asked by my teacher to do a reseach project with a focus on "changes in New Zealand english" my topic is changes caused by social, political and economic reforms in NZ. I found your address on the internet and thought you could help me by suggesting where i could find information about the topic in NZ.

If you could help me i would be most appreciated.

KryssTal Reply: If you check out my language web page, there are a number of links to various language resourses.

Good luck.

hi

liked your site. after having lived here in london with my british husband for a few years -- still both of us finding language miscommunications -- i have been keeping my own list for when we go back to america -- soon -- so i won't forget :)

most of your words are fairly accurate--only a few i would slightly disagree with... but you may like to advise non-americans that "spunk" can mean sperm / ejaculation in the u.s. if you'd like to refer to someone in the peppy / excited / energetic sense, use the word "spunky" although still this could be seen in the former sense, as a verb, if one has not chosen the proper context. probably more than you needed to know.. ha ha

recently i was completely clueless as to this road sign: simply the word "cambered".... which my husband explained meant the road was steeply inclined. to him this was obvious, yet i had never even seen this word.

quay, fayre,tyre, and queu (spelling?) all could be added to your list, as unusual to most americans. and the use of "treble"--the first time someone rattled off the a phone number using "treble 4" i wasn't sure if she meant "34" or "444".

well as you know i could go on and on... i will continue on my search for things to do/see in london -- which is how i accidently found your site. i am going to show my BRITISH husband the non-tourist side of london:)

KryssTal Reply: Thanks for your comments... language never fails to amuse.

Your list talks about whistle & fruit -> suit. I believe it is actually 'whistle & flute'.

I love the site - keep up the good work!

KryssTal Reply: Well spotted and thank you very much!

Hi, Kriss:

A very interesting and entertaining site. Thanks!

One comment: the Welsh "crowd" is a musical instrument. Isn't the other "crowd" from somewhere else?

KryssTal Reply: Thank you - I'll check it out.

I am happy to see your language list. One correction, though. It should be "Scottish (Gaelic)" or "G�idhlig."

If you feel that you must call it "Scots Gaelic," then be sure the word "Scots" has only 1 "t" in it. Nowadays they are just calling the languages "Scottish" and "Irish" with the Gaelic part understood. They are also called "G�idhlig" and "Gaeilge" if you wanted to use those.

T� (thanks) for lending and ear.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you - I have changed it to "Scottish Gaelic" so that it is clear to the reader.

Hi!

My name is Daphnee Simard and I am a second language didactic professor at the Universite du Quebec a Trois-Rivieres (Canada). I am currently working on the elaboration of educational material for a publishing House in Quebec: La maison d'edition Guerin. The material is elaborated in order to be used in English as a second language classrooms with 15 and 16 years old French speaking quebecers. As you probably know, Quebec is mainly French speaking and English is a second language.

I saw on your WEB page information about languages and more specifically about English that would perfectly fit in the material I am working on right now.

Would you and your partner, give me permission to use some of the information presented on your WEB page. You would be cited, of course!

Thanks in advance

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your comments. You have our permission to use the material on our web site (with citation).

Hi Kryss,

I had to thank you for such a fantastic site. Looking at the differences between your country and mine, (USA), was funny as well as informational. I never realized there was such a major difference between English and American. We call our language English, obviously, it isn't even close, especially when it comes to slang.

KryssTal Reply: Glad you enjoyed it.

I found your site because I am a Dr. Who fan and am always looking for new sites containing anything about Dr. Who. I go to the convention each year in Los Angeles California on St. Valentine's Day weekend. This coming year, Peter Davison will be the guest of honor.

KryssTal Reply: Dr Who - my favourite!

I have even gotten three of my 10 grandchildren hooked on Dr. Who and have tried to get each program episode made or available. We usually sit down once a week and watch Dr. Who.

KryssTal Reply: Do you get the reconstructions? They're interesting.

I have a "net" friend that lives in Red Ditch and we have become close, yet distant friends. We usually talk by Internet Phone once a week or so and send email daily. Because of Dr. Who and Al, my greatest desire is to visit your beautiful country and hopefully I will find a way this coming year.

KryssTal Reply: You're very welcome - you'll have fun here.

Thank you again for a great site.

Just a quick note to express my admiration for your Web Page, particularly the language section.

I was surfing the Web with some of my A Level students and we found your information on slang, accent and dialect and etymology extremely useful.

My husband has seen your site (yes, I have been investigating further at home!) and he commented on the fact that the layout and colours on the website is very reader friendly.

I hope you don't mind my students referring to your site.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments. I enjoy people getting knowledge and information from my web site. Also I am glad you appreciate the need to make sites easy on the eye (not to mention the printer).

I am aghast & appalled at the way the American media, murders not only the English language, but even their own American language. Their insistence upon using the word "MURDER" and the word "KILL" synonymously.

In case You don't know good guys (soldiers, police, hunters, doctors, animals) kill; bad guys (Cain, king Herod, Sam Berkowitz, Ramirez, the Los Angeles Zodiac) murder! In the heirarchy of life killers are on a par with the animals murderers are beneath the animal level and are at the demon level. What is so complicated about this actuality?

KryssTal Reply: Very interesting

But what has this to do with me - I am neither American nor media. I would have thought that kill is a verb to do with the removal of life from anything that possesses life whereas murder is a criminal term that has to be decided by a judicial system.

My friend, I had actually considered, that You probably were neither American nor media. However I had perused Your web-site and considered that because of Your interest in vocabulary Perhaps You might be interested in a great injustice being semanticly wrought in my country by those who should know better (Like news reporters, talk show hosts, police, police officials, politicians, f.b.i. agents, and yes even families of murdered victims). And then they wonder why the American murder rate is so high.

KryssTal Relpy: I thought that was because of the number of guns around!

Just Ventingly Yours,
Professor Henry Higgins, an American Semanticist.

KryssTal Reply: Professor Higgins, eh? Hows Eliza?

Sorry but You happen to be handy and perhaps can understand. By the way check out my web page, too

KryssTal Reply: I will, old chap!

If there were zero guns in America, the murders would continue (there are other methods available), because of the "American Semantical" crises. You have bought into the C.I.A 's fallacious no guns, no killing (Their word here) hipe.

They want all of Our guns because of Our "Constitutional Preamble" (read it for enlightenment regarding Our Constitutional right, to bear arms). Incidently for the same reason (Semantics) countless children will continue having out of wedlock babies even if all the children were inundated (pardon the unavoidable pun here) with prophelactics.

By the way I am a left wing liberal (believing in the, Creative Source given human right to, Liberty). But also believing in the right, indeed NECESSITY for people to carry guns in order to protect Our freedom. But conversely in the virtue of the death penalty (it has kept me from killing, sic, many a people. especially when I was picked on in my junior high and high schools) But enough of this Philosophy, I am sure I am at this point boring You to tears, SORRY!

See Ya!

KryssTal Reply: I'm afraid we're hitting a major cultural difference between the USA and Europe here.

Most of us over here are glad guns are banned in the UK and that we have NO death penalty. There is a huge difference in our history. In the UK most left wingers or liberals are against both guns and capital punishment. No European country has the death penalty at present.

I think your views are very normal for the USA but would be considered extreme here, old chap! Ever travelled to Europe?

Vive la difference!

Dear Linguists and etymologists,

I sent the following information to Webster's Dictionary and Oxford English Dictionary. They rejected it. In some cases (RIP, especially), the information clarifies blank spots in their knowledge; in others, it shows some of their errors. Let the article speak for itself. The question is, what is wrong with it and why are they so stubborn? Feel free to e-mail me.

In the field of etymology, it is inevitable that one eventually encounters the concept of convergence (coincidence), wherein words from two widely separated languages (Primarily Anglo-Germanic and Sanskrit, in this case) have similar spellings and meanings without any intermediate language between them to act as a go-between bridge. A few examples might be considered convergence, but the question is: how many examples if apparent convergence are necessary to suggest, rather, a new explanation or pattern?

(A note in advance: I am aware that Sanskrit went out of use around 300 a.d., and technically I should be quoting various Sanskritic dialects instead. However, since my sources regarding them are extremely limited, I am quoting from Sanskrit to prove my point. My sources are

OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY [OED],
A SANSKRIT-ENGLISH DICTIONARY [ASED] by Monier-Williams,
WEBSTER'S, A DICTIONARY OF URDU, CLASSICAL HINDI AND ENGLISH by John Platts,
A COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY OF INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES by R.L. Turner.

With regards to diacritical marks, transliterated letters usually written with marks above the letters are followed by apostrophes in this paper: a, s [=sh]).

--Eng. LAD/LADDIE: WEBSTER'S and OED trace this word back to only ME. LADDE, "servant, boy", of obscure origin. Cf. Skt. LADIKA or LADIKA, "boy, servant".

--Eng. Verb ACHE/AKE, mental or physical anguish : AS. ACAN . WEBSTERS mentions Gr. AGOS and Skt. A'GAS, "sin, injury", as uncertain etymologies, but it is obvious that the Skt. word is related to transgression and not physical or mental pain. I would suggest Skt. A-KA, unhappiness, pain, trouble.

--Eng. TWITCH, "to jerk suddenly"; later, (noun) "sharp mental or physical pain" : OE. TWICCIAN (Cf. Skt. TVISH/TVESHATI [TV is pronounced as TW], "be violently agitated, moved or troubled"; TVISH, "violent agitation"). It might be said that TWITCH does not resemble TVISH enough. There is the related word TVIT-PATI. However, admittedly, it means "light-lord, sun" since TVISH also means "shine".

--Eng. ASH and German-Scandinavian cognates: Prior to 1000, there is OE. ASCE (singular) and ASCAN (plural), wherein "SC" is pronounced like "SH". Cf. Skt. A'SA/AS, "ashes". There is Goth. AZGO from theoretical Old Teutonic root *AZGON, which should be the earlier, preceding root word, yet it is the later Anglo, Germanic and Scandinavian forms which are closer to the Sanskrit. Graham Caie of Glasgow University says maybe I am right on this one.

---Eng. TWANG (OED, 1567): "a ringing note of a stringed instrument", therefore a resonance or reverberation. WEBSTER'S compares it to the idea of vibrating, throbbing, or twitching (of tension or pain). Cf. Skt. TVANG, "tremble, wave". Note: In Skt., TV is pronounced as TW. TWANG can also refer to "letting fly" (an arrow), often with the idea of force or speed. Quotes: 1) "1600. And set in his mightie bowe, new bent, twanged the string, out flew the quarell long". 2)"Where Scythia's shepherd peoples dwell aloft...And twang the rapid arrow past the bow" (OED). Cf. a secondary definition of TVANG, jump, leap, gallop.

--Eng. SHRIVELLED, "having wrinkles as if dried up"; SHRIVELDY, "withered"; SHRIVEL, "be reduced to inefficient condition, shrink physically or mentally". (Cf. Skt. SHRI'V/SRIV/SRI'V, "to go/become dry, frustrate, thwart" related to SRU'TA, "withered"). Earliest English form is during the 1500's, but there is mention of Swedish dialect SKRYVLA (SK is pronounced as SH, I believe), "wrinkle". --SITA and SHITA (Furrow) change into SAITA and SHAITA, worshipper of Sita, pertaining to Sita. SITA and can also used to denote a parting of the hair or vagina (Cornelia Dimmitt, Sita: Fertility Goddess and Sakti, in THE DIVINE CONSORT, J.S. Hawley and D.M. Wulff, eds., p. 211 ). Consider German SCHEITELN, to part (hair); SCHEITEL, parting of hair; SCHEIDE, parting, vagina, akin to M.E. SCHEDE/SCHETE : O.E. SCEATH, vagina. Another possibility is J. SHIWA, wrinkle , furrow, both of the face. However, I am unable to point to any actual relationship between SITA and wrinkle.

Some words, primarily Anglo-Germanic, seem to be a hybrid of Sanskrit (or perhaps a more recent dialect like Hindi or Urdu) and other languages:

--Eng. MASTER, "leader, ruler", with French, German and Scandinavian cognates. Originally, prior to 1000, the word was spelled "maegister" from Latin. Around 1200-1300, it changed to MEISTER and MAISTER; circa 1300,if not sooner, it assumes the meaning of "head" (of an organization. Cf. Fr.-Eng. CHIEF/CHIEVE, head). There is mention of MAST, shortened form of MASTER (1460), and in 1420, there is also mention of MAST, a weight of 2.5 pounds Troy. Cf. Skt. MASTA, "measured, head"; MASTI, a noun meaning "a weighing, measuring".

As we have seen in case of MASTA, a word can have radically-different definitions. My guess is that this word actually has a multiple etymology, a blending, of two different words, the etymology of which is lost in the past due to Sanskrit's antiquity. Here are some examples of English multi-etymology:

--Originally, prior to 1000, the main definitions of MURK/MIRK and related words referred to dark(ness). OED says that the possible source of the words could lie in the sense of BECOMING dark. Then around 1300, there also appears the concept of thick(ness), said of air or vapor, in the sense of becoming so. OED says there are no viable cognates out of Teutonic. Cf. Skt. MURCH/MU'RCH, "to thicken, become strong, increase in intensity, pervade, spread over, become senseless, swoon". Related forms of this word are MU'RKHI' and MU'RKHA, which deal with stupidity, i.e., thick-headedness. Eng. MURK can also mean "unenlightened, hard to understand".

--Eng. MAD, "angry, insane" : OE. GEMAED (pre-1000), which changes to ME. MEDDE / MADDE (circa 1300). Akin to OS. GIMED, "foolish" and Goth. GAMAITHS, "crippled". OED mentions theoretical root *GAMAIDO- and pre-Teutonic *MOITO- : Indogermanic root *MEI-, "to change". OED also mentions the related AMAD (1200) : OE., GEMAEDAN, "to madden", akin to the idea of "bruised, crazed, to maim".

The point of all this is: the further one goes back in time from about 1200-1300, the less that words resemble Eng. MAD in spelling or meaning. After about 1200-1300, definitions occur which further resemble Skt. MAD, "rejoice, exhilarate, intoxicate", which has such verb forms as AMA'DISHUH and AMATTA. It is akin to Skt. MATTA, "excited, intoxicated, angry, mad, insane" (Cf. Hindi-Urdu MATT, mad; MATTA, intoxicated woman; It. MATTA, crazy woman; akin to MATTO, "insane").

Admittedly, the Sanskrit word engendered Latin MADERE, which deals with intoxification, but it does not refer to anger or insanity.

1)--Eng. REP/RIP (=OED SB2): "person of loose or worthless character", of obscure origin (1747). It also refers to an inferior or worthless object (1786). Another separate word is Eng. verb RIP/RIPE, "to rob" (cf. RIP-OFF, steal, cheat, deceive), : OE. RYPAN (950), akin apparently to Goth. RAUPJAN, "pluck". Cf. Skt. verb RIP, "deceive, cheat; akin to Skt. noun RIP, "fraud, deceit, deceiver; RIPU, "cheat, rogue, treachery"; RIPRA, "dirt, impurity, vile"; REPA, "low, vile"; REPAS, fault. Again, note that the English spelling is the one closest to the Sanskrit.

2) There is another word, RIP, which OED considers to be one word but admits be of obscure origins. Here is why: The Eng. verb RIP, "cut or tear apart from, split" (1400s) later gets the definitions of cut away (1800s) and open up, release in 1900. Cf. RIP-CORD. Cf. Skt. REPAYATI, a causal verb form of RI' or RI, "sever, detach from, release, set free".

3) In the 1500s75, the same word means "to slash up with a sharp instrument; to open with violence". Quote: "He drewe out a shoulder knife. And ript me up the brest of him that murdred lay" (OED). Around the same time, there is also the meaning of mention for the purpose of discrediting, blaming and swear (1700). Cf. Skt. RIPH, speak, snarl, blame, hurt, kill. Akin to REPHA, guttural sound (=growl, threaten?) Also cf. SKT. RIPH, "kill, hurt, reproach".

In the 1800s RIP comes to mean rush along with violence or speed, akin to LET RIP, let fly . It is actually a mixture of 2) and 3): Cf. Skt. REPAYATI from RI/RI, become fluid, flow, let go.

It is obvious that these Sanskrit words have joined together, most likely into some more-modern dialect of Sanskrit.

--Eng. VARNISH : ME. VERNISSHE, OF. VARNIS (1200); from medieval Latin VERNIX and Greek BERNIKE and other European languages: OED admits that the origin of this word is unknown, while WEBSTER'S says it derives from the area of Bereniece in Cyrenaica, where this shellac substance was made. VARNISH can also refer to the act of applying the varnish and a "generic, artificial covering, embellishing feature, outside show. Cf. Skt. VARN, "to paint, color, spread"; VARNA, "covering, outward appearance, lustre". It is important to note that the English and French spellings are the ones closest to VARN among those found in other European languages.

--Eng. PRIDE : PRIED: originally from ON. PRYTHI, valor, ornament; AS. PRYTE, akin to PRUT, proud. But it later means sense of elation, delight. Cf. Skt. PRID, to gladden.

---Eng. SHEET : pre-1100 SCIETE (perhaps related to SCEATA) : theoretical root *SKAUT-. It originally referred to a napkin, towel or cloth. In early 1600's, it gains the definition of "sail". Cf. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit S'[H]I'TA or Pali SI'TA, both "sail" (R.L. Turner, p. 773). Eng. SHEET can also refer to something which is thin. Cf. Skt. S'[H]ITA*, "thin, slender" (<S'O).

Eng. SHEET : OE. SCEATA, "rope", also "section of sail". Cf. Skt. S[H]ITA, rope". Admittedly ASED mentions possible doubt about this definition, but there it is.

There is the expression AS WHITE AS A SHEET. OED suggests that one should confer with WHITE. Cf. Skt. S'[H]ITA/SITA and Pali SITA, all "white, pale".

---Originally, Eng. RAP : ME. RAPPE meant "to strike" (1377); circa 1541, there is mention of "to utter, talk". Cf. Skt. RAP, "talk".

--Eng BAD : ME. BADDE (1297). According to OED, this word is related to the idea of "effeminate fellow" and "hermaphrodite". Cf. Hindi-Urdu BAD. I received this from Atul Narkhede: "BAD (pronounced like bud with a soft d) is a very common upasarga (prefix)occurring in thousands of Hindi/Urdu words. It connotes a negative/bad meaning." Another Hindu source relays basically the same idea that it is a natural Hindu word

--Eng. LADE/LOAD: Webster's mentions ME. LOD, OE. HLADAN/LADAN/LA'D, "to load, burden" : ON. HLATHA, Goth. AFHLATHAN, OSlav. HLASTI. Yet Hindi-Urdu LA'D and LA'DI', "load, lading", remain virtually unchanged. I have been unable to determine if they were borrowed from English during times of British occupation of India.

The information included in this list of words might imply that an ethnic group speaking some Indo-Iranian language was present in Europe prior to English occupation of India and it played a minor role in shaping European languages. Perhaps one could formulate a theory that some words thought to have spread from India, through Asia and then to Europe actually went directly to Europe and then spread outward.

I accessed the following URL and was dismayed at the carelessness of the spelling contained within.

to name but three. Maybe someone should have a look at your quality control!

KryssTal Reply: My spelling has shamed me. It has been corrected.

Kryss --

One of the biggest frustrations for me when I was teaching EFL in Eastern Europe was the prevalence of lists that purport to show the "differences" between UK and US English. While there are differences between the two varieties, these lists never really show them truthfully. Yours is characteristically misleading.

KryssTal Reply: As you know there are several 'proper' dictionaries covering this interesting topic so my table intends to be a little more tongue in cheek. The humourous aspect is more important than strict accuracy although I want to be more accurate on my other language pages.

Here goes:

Definition : UK Word : USA Word
payment in a restaurant : bill : check

In the US, both "bill" and "check" are used with about equal frequency. This is not new usage, so I don't know where people found this "difference".

KryssTal Reply: We NEVER say 'check' for this.

unit of paper currency : note : bill

In the US: "a 50-pound note" but "a 50-dollar bill". We say note all the time, but not about our own currency.

KryssTal Reply: We never use the generic 'bill' except in terms like 'doller bill'.

Ah! The situation's reversed here, it's obviously because of what we call our local currencies. I should ask my Australian boss what they call their dollars and their old pounds.

third piece of a male's suit that goes between the jacket and the shirt : waist coat : vest

This is accurate.

angry : pissed off : pissed

In the US, "pissed" is short for "pissed off", so both are used.

KryssTal Reply: For us 'pissed' ALWAYS means 'drunk'. In cockney rhyming slang we would say 'Brahms and Liszt' to mean 'pissed' (ie drunk)!

You see, both terms can mean "angry" for us, because "pissed" cannot mean drunk.

the area next to a street where pedestrians walk : pavement : sidewalk

"Pavement" in the US is the actual substance used to pave the street or sidewalk.

KryssTal Reply: A 'paved' road is one that is not dirt, but sidewalk is NEVER used instead of pavement.

what you eat with milk, tea or coffee : biscuit : cookie

Correct.

place from where goods are bought : shop : store

Both terms have long been used in the US with equal frequency. This is not a "difference", except that the British probably don't say "store". In fact, I wouldn't be surprised if some of them really do say "store", since most of our dialect usage has its origin somewhere in Britain.

KryssTal Reply: On TV they always seem to talk about going down to the store on American dramas. Here, 'store' is more of a larger 'superstore' type place (mall?) whereas shop is used over 95% of the time.

But in the States it would sound very strange to say "stationery store", "novelty store", "thrift store". You'd have to say "shop" for all of these and some others. I think for us a "shop" indicates something smaller, often privately owned.

what there was before email : post : mail

True and not true. Too complex to characterize here. Remember, we have "post offices", not "mail offices".

KryssTal Reply: We never use 'mailman', or 'mail a letter'. We always say 'post' in those situations. Our email servers tend to begin with post rather than mail so the software defaults to this in the UK.

the business part of a city : town centre : downtown

"Downtown" is the most frequent term, but we're liable to say "town center" in some rare instances.

KryssTal Reply: We NEVER say 'downtown'. In London, either term is meaningless since there is no real centre (sorry ' center'). We make our money in The City, spend it in the West End and get governed from Westminster!

front of a car : bonnet : hood
back of a car : boot : trunk

Yup! And "windscreen" / "windshield", etc.

KryssTal Reply: I forgot that one, thanks.

Another interesting new one: A student of mine from Britain has a husband who is an automotive engineer, and he indicated there's been a change in the technical meaning of "bumper". I guess that before the plastic fascia appeared over the bumpers a bumper was a bumper was a bumper in both countries. Now, in America, the bumper is the metal beam that is covered by the fascia, and in the UK the bumper is the entire bumper-fascia assembly. The British engineers' distinction would correspond more to American street parlance. I also get indications that what we call the "bumper" was once called the "fender" in the UK, which for us has always meant the metal covering the wheel well.

city vehicle running on rails : tram : street car

If it's an American vehicle it's a streetcar for us. If it's British or German we call it a "tram".

what you put on bread : jam : jelly

Not true. Jam is thicker and has fruit pulp in it (but not as solid as in marmelade). Jelly has no pulp. Both things are eaten in America, and you'll see both substances in the store.

a type of dessert : jelly : jello

REALLY???????? I didn't know that. The generic word for jello is gelatin.

KryssTal Reply: When I was young I used to marvel at Charlie Brown eating 'peanut butter and jelly sandwiches' since jelly is our generic word for the gelatine based dessert. We don't really have your 'jelly'. I like jam and the thicker 'preserve'.

That's interesting, because I used to see what we call "jelly" in Germany and France all the time.

law enforcement officer : copper : cop

"So long, copper!" Right out of a typical American gangster film.

KryssTal Reply: 'I'm a cop' - we NEVER use that.

a large vessel for juice or water : jug : pitcher

Which type of vessel do you mean? We have both jugs and pitchers, but they aren't the same thing.

KryssTal Reply: We NEVER put water in a pitcher.

Wait. Are we talking about the same thing? For us, a "jug" is a large, fat bottle, usually holding about a gallon. It has a narrow mouth and a cap, but it also has a handle. A pitcher is a fat-looking vessel that is wide open at the top and its rim gathers into a pointed lip to facilitate pouring. I've just looked at my Oxford dictionary and seen that in the UK a "pitcher" is the same thing as a pitcher in the US, but so is a "jug". What do you call our "jug", then?

player who throws a ball at another player holding a bat : bowler : pitcher

If he's playing cricket he's still a bowler in America.

KryssTal Reply: I didn't know that but it does make a nice joke.

Don't forget too, though, that a bowler here generally engages in "bowling" (i.e., ten-pins).

multi-lane road for cars : motorway : freeway

Both, depending on the context.

container carried by females for money : purse : pocket book

Both terms are very common here.

KryssTal Reply: 'Purse' here is only the litte money container, the larger bag carried by (usually) females is called a 'hand bag'.

Here purses can be big or small, but handbags are always big. It looks like we're dealing with overlapping semantic fields here a lot of the time, rather than with actually separate terminology.

device for obtaining water : tap : faucet

Both are normal terms in America, except that if you get technical a "tap" tends to refer to the tube the water flows out of, while the "faucet" is the whole assembly, handles and all. In ordinary speech we don't make a distinction between the two, and say "tap" or "faucet" as we please.

KryssTal Reply: We NEVER use 'faucet'. I didn't know what a faucet was when I was young and reading DC Comics, old chap!

This is interesting, because "faucet" came to us from French by way of Middle English, so it must have died out in most or all of Britain. Just like "gotten".

KryssTal Reply: Many words have come to the US from England and have developed in different ways sometimes falling out of use in the UK.

I got plenty of the UK point of view from textbooks when I was teaching in the Czech Republic. However, there's also a point of view held by non-native speakers of English there (and in other countries) that doesn't understand that English has multiple, mutually intelligible standards. They would insist on something they referred to as "British" English (whatever that actually is), and claim that students learning the language from a Yank or an Australian would not be understood by "most people". I would find horrid errors in their locally produced textbooks, but they would insist these were all "British" English that I wouldn't know, because naturally a person who grew up reading British books watching British TV shows and listening to British music in America would never understand "real English" as well as someone who'd been sealed off in a communist country with little or no exposure to authentic materials. A teacher from England told me that whenever she pointed out the same errors, the Czech instructors would tell her her English must be polluted with Americanisms. It was all pretty laughable if you didn't have to deal with it on a daily basis.

KryssTal Reply: British English has many different forms and accents. In the north east for example, child is 'bairn' , the Norse word. In Scotland, a small girl is a 'wee lassie'. As for London, well:

have a butchers = take a look (rhymes with butcher's hook)

gonna give the trouble a dog = I am going to telephone my wife (trouble and strife = wife; dog and bone = phone!)

get a load of the whistle = look at that suit (whistle and flute = suit)

The one thing that did annoy me about some UK-produced textbooks, though, was their insistence on being as British as possible to the point where they taught Britishisms at the expense of expressions that would be understood all over the world.

KryssTal Reply: I agree, all forms need to be explained - I bore people all the time by pointing out and glorifying the differences.

There are some UK terms that people understand everywhere, but others, if it weren't for the fact that they emanated from England, would be considered no more than local slang. I taught at a school for hotel professions and did translations for hotels, and I encountered such resistance when I insisted that 3/4 of the native English speakers in the world don't understand terms like "half board".

KryssTal Reply: True, this is UK English. I still come across American expressions that I don't understand and some that I could never say (like "I'll get the check")

I tried them out on Australians and Canadians and realized it wasn't just us insular Americans who give blank stares when encountering such terms. So there's apparently a vocabulary that embraces the UK and all non-native speakers, but that isn't understood by most native speakers. On top of that, you have English expressions that exist ONLY among non-native speakers, like "by us" (= "in our country"), etc. A Czech I know says he and his Swiss girlfriend communicate by means of "Euro-English" by which he means basic English with a shared repertoire of French- and Czech-based mistakes.

KryssTal Reply: In my opinion, all forms of English are valid and equal - the variety is the strength of the language.

The other thing I've had trouble with is the use of the Union Jack as a graphic designation for the English language. On my first trip to Germany, I read the German instructions over the public phone, because I assumed the Union Jack indicated instructions on how to call the UK. I went for a few days doing things like this, and I would have made the same mistake had the American flag been used. This is understandable, because growing up near Detroit, where we have the English language under two national flags (three for me, because the Canadians changed their flag when I was a kid), and being constantly exposed to English-language culture from still other nations, it had never occurred to me that English can be associated with any national flag. That's why this shorthand symbol confused me.

KryssTal Reply: For me flags are about countries, languages are about regions and communication. I heard a football (ie soccer) comentator once ask a player how they said something in Belgian.

a self contained section of television : programme : show

We say "program" just as often as we say "show". Always have.

KryssTal Reply: I havn't heard that used too much but I'll accept your assertion.

So I've vented my frustration. I hope you're not insulted. It's just that this kind of thing drives me crazy sometimes. BTW, we also say "autumn" as much as we say "fall".

KryssTal Reply: No insult suffered - thanks for your response. I think the unusual aspect of this page is that it is from a UK point of view.

Thanks for not being insulted.

KryssTal Reply: I have enjoyed your thoughts.

Good Afternoon. I was looking for some information on language and came across your site. It was quite informative and very interesting. I was wondering, though, if you might answer a question for me since I've been unable to find the answer on any site.

In what Indo European language would the letter U be depicted as a V?

Example: RUDWALL spelled as RVDWALL

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments. The original Latin alphabet used V and U interchangeably. For example, "Dominus" might be written DOMINVS.

I enjoyed your page on differing US/UK English usage. I suspect it has a very long way to go before it's complete, though.

KryssTal Reply: You are quite correct - I hope to build it up slowly. I travel a lot around the world and have met a lot of Americans. it's always interesting to listen to differences in our languages. Even around the UK itself there are different words in use.

I think I've seen fairly comprehensive lists of US/UK differences on the web somewhere, but I can't remember where. Have you checked the alt.usage.english FAQ list?

I gather you're not including differences which are purely spelling, such as tyre/tire and draught/draft.

KryssTal Reply: Quite correct - I also ignore pronounciation differences.

A few of your entries require comment:

US "pissed" for "angry" is really just a contraction of "pissed off", so we're the same there. We can do that because we don't use "pissed" for "drunk", so there's no ambiguity.

We still eat biscuits; they're just different from cookies. Biscuits are harder and dryer; they are literally "bis cuit", that is, twice cooked (and the German equivalent is the same, "zwei back").

KryssTal Reply: Cookies is actually a Dutch word.

We also use the noun "shop", but a "shop" is smaller than a "store", in general.

KryssTal Reply: We also use store as in large "superstores". But if we go to buy a newspaper we go to a shop wheras you would tend to go to a store.

I don't know where you got the idea that we use "uptown" for "suburbia". We use "suburbia", or, more likely, "the suburbs". I've never heard "uptown" being used to mean suburbia. You might think it would be, since the town centre is indeed called "downtown", but it isn't. In fact, the only city in which I've ever heard the word "uptown" is New York, in Manhattan, which is layed out like a grid, and in which "uptown" is the direction in which the addresses increase along the avenues (North). Since at many times in the history of New York, the uptown addresses were wealthier, the word "uptown" has a slang meaning of "ritzy".

KryssTal Reply: I stand corrected - I got my information from a New Yorker. One thing that differs of course is that we do not have our cities planned in grids so perhaps there is ambiguity there. I will remove that entry if it only applies to one city.

There is indeed an unambiguous meaning to "uptown" in New York, but even there, it certainly doesn't mean "suburban". Travelling "Uptown" in Manhattan, one remains in a heavily populated city, and eventually, after crossing 125th Street, one arrives at Harlem (a Dutch name, I think originally "Haarlem"). That's as far uptown as one can go. After crossing the Harlem River, although you're still in New York City, the direction north would no longer be considered "uptown"; that word is applied only to the island of Manhattan.

The word "uptown" DOES appear to be used in other cities, according to some responses on a.u.e. My dictionary says "In or toward the upper part of a town or city." For "downtown", it says "To, toward, or in the lower part or the business center of a city or town." Thus it seems that it is used to denote either the business center of a city (and in New York, the financial center, including Wall Street, is indeed downtown), or a section of the city which is actually physically lower. That is, the definition implies that the "up" and "down", in some cities, might be taken quite literally.

But to my knowledge, it NEVER means "suburban" in modern usage. It is true that once in the past, when New York was a small city at the southern tip of Manhattan, one could drive (one's horse and carriage) uptown into the suburbs. Then the city spread out as the avenues, starting with Fifth Avenue, were extended to the north. Eventually, the entire island was covered, and uptown was suburban no longer.

KryssTal Reply: I bow to your superior knowledge and have removed the entry from the table.

We also use "cop" fairly routinely for a policeman. "Copper" is rare, heard mostly in gangster movies depicting the 1920's.

KryssTal Reply: Cop should be the American term. Our terms include copper, rozzer, the filth, and many others.

"Fag" and "queen" both have the same primary meanings here as in the UK. As slang, they do have the meanings you gave, in the right context, except that "queen" refers not to just any male homosexual, but to a male homosexual with markedly effeminate mannerisms.

KryssTal Reply: I once saw an American fall about laughing when a Brit said he was "going out for a fag" !

Thank you very much for your comments - I'll be adding and removing items as I get to know more, ol' chap.

Toodle pip and tata.

I like your web site. Very informative.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments.

Just wanted to add my two cents. Under Cantonese, you can add "gung ho". I know "ho" means good in Cantonese.

KryssTal Reply: It certainly sounds like a Chinese phrase - I'll check it out and add it to the list.

Of cource this gives us another UK / USA difference - we don't use "cents". We would say my "tuppeny's worth" ("two pennies").

I'm interested in your first name since your surname is obviously Chinese. Are you really Leslie (mixed family / Christian family) or is "Leslie" a name that keeps the rest of the USA happy?

My parents are from China. My mother was born in Qingdao and my father was born in Shanghai. They gave me an "American" name when I was born (actually I think it's Scottish for "little meadow". Also my last name got changed when my father emigrated. It should be Zhou.

Your web site saved me for borrowed Italian words. I'm writing a curriculum unit on German, Irish, and Italian immigration from 1840-1860. It wasn't really my choice since I get paid to write this unit but I am finding it to be very interesting.

Keep up the good work!

I am delighted to have found your website. I am teaching a class in the varieties of English to a group of exchange students here in Santa Barbara, CA at the EF School of Languages. Finding your site has made life a lot easier for me now that we have a computer lab at school.

I have linked my class page ( http://www.rain.org/~vog/dialect.html) to your site.

KryssTal Reply: Very nice of you - thank you.

Bag carried by women for their makeup, money etc...

Nice pages

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments. I have added this pair also.

It's really petty but there's a river Rom in Romford. Romford is the location where the river used to be forwarded.

KryssTal Reply: "forded" surely.

If pushed I might guess that the ford was used on the old Colchester to London road which ran nearby but that's a guess. Anyhow Rom may mean wide, not that the River Rom is, but Romford is derived from the river name.

I did say it was petty :)

KryssTal Reply: You are right of course. It's just that the river name does mean wide.

I liked the British & Cockney pages the best. It's curious that a few Cockney expressions (like fence and loan shark) are now universal.

I was surprised by 'petunia'-- I'll have to add it to my own list of Amerindian words in English. You might add "shiv" to your list of Gypsy words in English. And there are some more Japanese words that have come over more recently: manga, anime, hentai, sarariman, teriyaki, tofu, futon, daikon, shiitake, kanji. Also, Russian 'vodka' is a diminutive (of voda 'water').

As someone who has a good knowledge of Irish, I was still surprised by some of the words you have listed (e.g. strontium?!). Others I know of are: SPREE, SNAZZY, SO LONG (from SLAN). Also the American slang word SLEW (a lot of). I feel that SHENANIGANS must be of Gaelic origin though I can't quite work out the derivation. Anyway, nice work.

P.S. I believe ROAD comes from an old Celtic (or Old Irish) word.

KryssTal Reply: Thanks for the tips - It all gets checked. Top of the morning to you.

Hello! I'm searching for an expanded list of English words borrowed from Italian. If you know of such information online, please let me know!

Thank you very much!

Your Web site is fantastic!

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments. Sorry about the delay in responding. You could try having a look at this site:

They may have the information you require.

I wonder if you can help me with a qusetion that is puzzling me and my neighbours.

There is a hill near us (Derbyshire, UK) named Owler Tor. Also there are several street names with the word 'Owler' in it (including one just called Owlers). I can find no reference to the origin of the name.

KryssTal Reply: Sorry for the delay in responding - I have not been able to find the answers to your questions. Sorry.

Thank you for trying.

Dear Kryss,

I've just discovered your site, which I'm enjoying. One term that' got me in to trouble in America before now is "cheap". To me it simply means inexpensive; to them it connotes stinginess and corner-cutting.

Thanks

KryssTal Reply: Read Bill Bryson's "The Mother Tongue" for more differences and their histories.

Hi - can you please be of some help?

We recently heard the term 'Nonce' and would like to know where it came from. Can't see it mentioned anywhere else on the Web. Thanks very much

KryssTal Reply: No idea of its origin. It appears to be Cockney. It is prison slang referring to sexual offenders.

Hello! I love your Cockney English site.

I'm writing a novel in which a minor character speaks with a Cockney accent. I wonder if I might trouble you by asking if the three sentences below ring true to you, in terms of their sounding like they came from the mouth of a Cockney.

KryssTal Reply: Chears for your kind words, old chap!

1. We are jolly aware of your identity, Mr. Hatcher.

KryssTall Reply: Only the upper classes or satirists use "jolly", the cockney version of this would be

with the "wh" of who and "t" of mate not pronounced. (we know oo you are ma'e)

2. Thanks to you for joining us.

KryssTal Reply: This sounds like English spoken last century. Try

without the final g

3. Attaboy, Mr. Hatcher.

KryssTal Reply: "Attaboy" is an Americanism. Try

without the H in Hatcher and witout the d in old. China is short for China Plate - mate!

If these aren't quite right, would you have any suggestions?

KryssTal Reply: Listen to Dick Van Dyke's cockney accent in Chitty Chitty Bang Bang - and ignore it!

Thanks!

KryssTal Reply: let me know when the novel is out and I'll have a read!

Thanks for these tips, Kryss. They helped a lot. Here's hoping that this novel makes it to print. A lot of novels written are never published.

Facinating list! I thought that Istanbul was a Turkish corruption of Constaninople. What are the Greek roots for Istanbul?

KryssTal Reply:

is tin polin
to the town
at the town

Thanks for the comments.

This may be the wrong sort of question to ask you but my girlfriend'smum has just (today) taken in a family of Albanian refugees and is suffering from a slight language barrier. Can you suggest any (cheap) material available for simple day-to-day translations? Is there any material that might be useful on the net?

Yours thankfully.

KryssTal Reply: Sorry but the best I can suggest is that you search on the Internet.

Do you have a complete list of all the world's languages (or 200 more important) and countries where those languages are spoken?

KryssTal Reply: Try the following sites:

Good luck

Just stumbled onto your pages. Very enjoyable. A couple of points though: Puerto Rico is not a country, it is a United States 'commonwealth'.

KryssTal Reply: Appologies - and of course Gibraltar is not a country in that sense either but I was not trying to write a Political or Geographical essay!

And in the U.S. the compartment in the back of a car for carrying luggage, etc, is called a 'trunk', what in the U.K. is referred to as the 'boot.' Simply referring to this as the 'back of a car' could be misleading.

KryssTal Reply: Quite correct - I'll change it

Keep up the good work.

KryssTal Reply: Thanks.

interesting site!

SAUNA is certainly Finnish (even though the Swedish have tried to adopt it as their innovation...). I am not a specialist but I think you could add the word RAPAKIVI on your list as another Finnish word. It is a stone.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your kind comments.

Unfortunately, I have never heard of RAPAKIVI and it is not in my dictionary so I cannot add it.

I was wondering if you knew how I could get a list of countries that speak english and countries that don't?

can you refer me to a site that has this, I am just looking for a simple list

KryssTal Reply: Hi there

A list of English speaking countries appears on my English Language web page.

I'm currently writing a paper attacking the belief that Standard American English is a 'white' language i.e. spoken and created primarily by Caucasians and forced upon the rest of the world in conquest.

I admit there is some truth in the argument-but in the twenty first century I think it's safe to say the conquer has become the conquered - thanks for the borrowed word list - it confirms the stuff I've pulled out of my hard copy resources - only in a easier format.

Also, if you want to really look at the beginning of things, I recommend "Our Marvelous Native Tongue-The Life and Times of the English Language" By Robert Claiborne and "A History of English In It's Own Words" By Craig M. Carver

Thanks again for keeping the resourses on-line.

KryssTal Reply: Thank you for your comments.

I am interested by the term "Caucasians".

We (in England) often hear this on American TV shows and it appears to mean "white person". The Caucasian mountains and region are between Turkey and the Caspian Sea. Chechnya (in the news recently) is in this region. So the Chechnyans are real Caucasians. I wonder how this word got its American meaning.

Good luck with your project.

I would like to add guttapercha (spelling?) into your list of English words that has been derived from Malay.

KryssTal Reply: Hello there

I have never seen this word before. What does it mean and who uses it?

Dear Mr. Kryss, or should I say "Mastre Kryss" since I' m Cypriot myself (well, half actually),

Congratulations for the great site. Ten years ago, while I was studying French in high school , I was surprised from the many similarities between Slavic (Russian) and Neolatin (French) and since then I have an interest in the subject. The strangest thing is that I cannot find any similarities (except from the "borrowed" words), between Greek and any other European language.

I speak Greek, Russian and English, so if you think that I can be in any help to you please contact with me.

Me sevasmo

KryssTal Reply: Yia sou kai eucharisto (hello and thank you)

Greek is the only member of the Hellenic Branch of Indo-European languages so it has no close relatives. However if you look at Latin grammar and compare it to Greek grammer you will see some interesting similarities.

Good luck

Please send me your web site address. I would like to pull it up on the internet. I home school my daughter and I'm interested in information from your company.

Thank you

KryssTal Reply: My web site is not a company but you're free to use its contents.

Thank you. Very interesting.

You forgot one, though. Too common to not be in the list. Bistro (fast) from Russians when they chase Napoleon out of Moscow and back to France. Also Vodka actually means little water.

KryssTal Reply: Thanks (spacibo) for these. I will update my page.