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THE
MEDIA Educational
Programmes in Kenyan media. Ethical Relativity and Journalism
> History
of Kenyan print media as a struggle of forces. Traditional communication channels
and Kenyan society. Saddam Hussein's trial as
media performance.
Kenyan journalists at a press
freedom demonstration in Nairobi. |
Why ethical relativism is a good point of view for journalists and other media professionals to embrace in the discharge of their duties.INTRODUCTIONThe
influence of the media over the world's population continues to grow
with advances in communications technologies. Ever since Johannes
Gutenberg's printing press was invented in the 16th century, the spread
of knowledge, ideas and concepts,
collectively
referred to as information, has increased by large factors. Humans are
social beings needing each other for the purpose of survival,
reproduction and psychological well-being. Humans need each other in
order to thrive and humans need each other in order to exist on earth.
And because of this, therefore, humans need to be in constant
communicative activities with and among themselves. The world of today is influenced by the mass channels of communication, collectively referred to as the media, more than ever before. The media can and does change lifestyles, the media can topple governments and the media can ruin or build careers. Such is the power of the mass media that it evokes both admiration and hate, both glory and disgust. Today's
world is referred to, by some scholars, as a “mass-mediated culture.”
Every society has been and is being molded by the media into some sort
of mishmash culture consisting of bits and pieces from other cultures
all over the world. For indeed globalization, as an evolution, is
systematically restructuring interactive phases among nations, by
breaking down barriers in the areas of culture, commerce, communication
and several other fields of endeavor. This is evident from its push of
free market economics, liberal democracy, good governance, gender
equality and environmental sustainability among other holistic values
of the member states (Nyakang'o et al,
2006). That is not to overlook the other major factors behind the
phenomenon of globalization. We
should not ignore the influence of multinational corporations with
their multicultural workforces, we should not forget the influence of
multilateral organizations such as the United Nations, World Bank and
the Red Cross and Red Crescent, among many others. But the media
undoubtedly reaches and thus delivers the message to the heart of the
people and transforms what used to be Utopian values, into popular
culture. In
spite of the many international crises of the 21st century, such as
global terrorism, humanity is certainly better off today than at any
other time in its history. No longer do rampaging armies roam the
lands; cannibalism has effectively been banished, the threat of
abduction and slavery has been eliminated, the sheer brute power of
governments has been much lessened. Within the vicinity of the United
Nations headquarters in the city of New York can be seen a statue of a
man beating a sword into a plowshare. This symbolizes the
transformation of the tools of war into the tools for peace, a feat
that has already been realized in much of the world. The media has
played an overwhelming role in this achievement. MEDIA & ETHICSThe
media's influence can be used for promotion of positive humanitarian
values as discussed earlier. Through film, newspapers, radio,
television, books and the Internet, values of democracy, individual
rights and capitalism have been disseminated throughout the world.
Home, church and school traditionally shaped and maintained values,
worldviews and the meaning of life in our society. These functions are
rapidly being assumed by media and the commercial [and political]
interests that control them (National Council of Churches, 1993). Media
plays a major role in setting the agenda of what in society will be
discussed or ignored. Media influences the way we look at
everything.
Media have a tremendous potential for good, often underutilized. They
add exciting new symbols to our culture, they provide chances for
people to witness events as they happen. They have great democratic
potential and can extend knowledge to all people, providing a global
perspective. They provide diversion as well as entertainment,
information and education. The
same media contains subtle and not-so-subtle messages with symbols,
sounds and metaphor that push society towards a market-driven,
violence-prone, self-centered lifestyle (National Council of Churches,
1993). Gratuitous violence is a cheapening of human life as a means of
achieving ratings on film and television. Advertising itself is a
source of exploitation by associating good living with the acquisition
of products and services in order for the advertiser to reap financial
benefits. And media itself has been seen as an agent of cultural
imperialism internationally which brings into question the issue of
democratic participation where rich, powerful, technologically advanced
nations dominate the flow of information. Other issues of contention in
media ethics debate include the invasion of privacy and truth telling
(Barnow, 1989). With
growth in media influence over the human race, the questions arise: how
should the media use this power? Who controls the media? In
order to answer this question, its important to reflect on the
philosophy of the nature of ethics. The first fundamental question in
ethics is, "what ought we to do?" The second question is, "what shall
guide what we are to do?" The first question has to do with action, the
second on the values that should guide the actions (Hartmann, 1967). Ethics
is the branch of philosophy that is concerned with what is morally good
and bad, right and wrong. Traditionally, ethics has undertaken to
analyze, evaluate and develop normative normal criteria for dealing
with moral problems (Britannica, 1975). The word "ethics" signifies,
not only to a certain branch of philosophical study, but also to the
object or subject matter of the study. "Ethics"
and "ethical" are often used synonymously with
"morals" and "morality". Ethics derives from the Greek word, éthos
while the word, morals, is derived from the Latin, mores.
Both words in their original languages meant habits or customs. The
ethics or morality of groups, however, consists not merely in what they
habitually or customarily do but in what they think is fitting, right
or obligatory to do (Britannica, 1975). In
Plato's Republic,
Socrates contended that there is a necessary connection between
morality and happiness; that to be moral is the only road to a happy
life; that the good person is necessarily happy; the bad one
necessarily unhappy. Socrates and his philosophical opponents both
admitted that morality does, often as a matter of fact, bring
substantial rewards - success in life, wealth, power and access to high
societal status. Immorality does, often as a matter of fact, bring
heavy punishment, failure, poverty and loss of friendships (Stage,
1937). Socrates'
insight was that the only road to personal happiness is the road of
morality through altruistic actions. In order to attain happiness and
peace of mind, we must forget acting in ways that seek our own
happiness. We must act to make others happy. And in so doing, we shall
find the happiness that we thought we were losing through altruism. This is how Socrates tackles the fundamental question of ethics, "what ought we to do?" The answer is: "we ought to be moral." "Why?" "If
you wish to be happy yourself, the only means to
adapt is to be moral. Everyone is so constituted that this is true." The
moral person is the one whose appetites are kept under strict control.
Morality, according to Socrates, is the obedience of the passions and
appetites to the rule of Reason (Stage, 1937). Aristotle, another Greek
philosopher, explained that, "the whole concern both of ethical
excellence and political science is with pleasures and pains; for the
person who uses these well will be good and the one who uses them badly
will be bad (Tiles, 2000)" The
second ethical question can thus be posed: "what is it that guides
action?" In other words, what guides the "ought" of the first ethical
question. These tend to vary from culture to culture and from time to
time. Our ethical attitudes are a result of enculturation that takes
place right from birth. Such intangibles as right and wrong, normal and
abnormal, beautiful and plain are absorbed from infancy, as a person
learns the ways of the group into which he or she is born ... Even the
facts of the physical world are discerned though the enculturative
screen, so that the perception of time, distance, weight, size and
other realities is mediated by the conventions of any given group
(Herskovits, 1947). Therefore,
ethical and moral standards are determined by one's culture; what may
be right in one society could be morally wrong in another. This is the
psychological reality of culture (Herskovits, 1947). Max Weber explains
further: "From a sociological point of view, an "ethical" standard is
one to which members of a community attribute a certain type of value
and which by virtue of this belief, they treat as a valid norm
governing their action (Tiles, 2000). As
far as the media is concerned, the subject of ethics has to do with
such issues as the invasion of privacy, truth telling, exploitation,
violence, democratic participation, promoting nutritionless products,
conflict of interest, stealing corporate money, pornography, public
relations, confidentiality, fair trial, credibility, ethical codes,
professionalism, fabrication, cheque book journalism, terrorism
coverage, bias, plagiarism, competitor relationships and lawyer
advertising (Barnow, 1989). For
instance, newscasters who also deliver commercials tend to blur the
lines between objective news coverage and outright advocacy for
listeners and viewers. Perhaps, the most dangerous lay attitude is the
tendency to equate private matters with public affairs leading to
protests from public figures whose rights to privacy have been violated
by the media. Use of double standards in covering bad news by some
editors hurts public confidence in the entire press's avowed watchdog
role. Why would it be right for one person to take a particular action
but wrong for somebody else to take the same action (Edwards, 1970)?
Media irresponsibility is just as much a danger to the welfare of
society as media censorship. "When regard for truth is weakened, a
society's well being is threatened," said Sissela Bok, an ethicist
(Barnow, 1989). In
its defense, the media itself is a victim of false analogy. One serious
error among thousands of accurate reports is cited by some as a
compelling argument against allowing unrestricted news coverage and
comment. More widespread is the tendency to lump all press performance
with that of the worst. Laymen sometimes dismiss free press pleas as
mere profit seeking rather than defenses of the democratic process [to
free speech]. Ignorance of libel-law rudiments causes readers and
listeners to judge some journalism unfairly ... (Edwards, 1970). Whereas
the freedom of expression and the right of the public to information
are fundamental to the establishment, nurturing and sustenance of a
democratic society and whereas respect for truth and the right of the
public to truth is the first duty of a journalist, these must be
balanced against the need to protect the privacy [and rights] of
individuals in a manner that secures the overall public interest (Media
Industry Steering Committee, 2001). An alert free press provides the best check for all people on whether laws are being administered fairly. As Alexis de Tocqueville remarked in 1834, we can only enjoy the inestimable benefits that the liberty of the press ensures when we submit to the inevitable evils it creates. "There is no medium between servitude and license." (Edwards, 1970). WHAT IS ETHICAL RELATIVISM?Ethical
relativism is the view there are no objective or universal moral norms,
principles or values that transcend either cultures, societies or even
individuals. Moral rules are seen simply as cultural rules or personal
preferences that are not universally valid (Wafula, 2006). Ethical
standards, which every member of a community is supposed to strive for,
are a result of each community's peculiar environmental conditions,
past experience in that environment and consequently an attempt at
adapting to that particular environment in order to ensure the
survival of the community. Ethical
standards ensure that individuals live together in harmony in order to
co-operate for the sake of survival. Ethical standards govern eating
habits, dressing styles, commerce, agriculture, arts, religion and
virtually every aspect of life. There was usually a compelling reason
to enforce a particular standard, but over time, a particular ethical
standard can persist for its own sake. For instance, celibacy among
Catholic and Buddhist priests is meant to exemplify the giving up of
life's pleasures in the pursuit of spiritual goals. The eating of pork
in Middle Eastern cultures was discouraged because pigs were viewed as
possible disease carriers in an epoch where medical development had not
started. To this day, devout Muslims and Jews do not eat pork in spite
of scientific evidence indicating that pork is just as safe as beef or
mutton. Ethical
relativism is the doctrine that moral rightness or wrongness of actions
varies from society to society and that there are no absolute moral
standards binding on all men at all times. Accordingly, it holds that
whether or not it is right, for an individual to act in a certain way
depends on or is relative to the society he or she belongs to (Wafula,
2006). If moral commandments have come into being, they are the work of
man; human thought has the power to raise up moral commandments and
also to overthrow them (Hartmann, 1967).
Ethical ObjectivismIn
contrast to the acceptance of a multitude of ethical standards arising
from cultural diversity, ethical objectivism believes in universal
moral standards that apply to every human being regardless of culture
and that these moral codes are not subject to debate. When ethics are
viewed along the lines of ethical objectivism, then there is nothing
for philosophy to do but to establish and present them clearly, to seek
the inner grounds for their absoluteness and to bring these into the
light. For here, thought is only a reproduction of that which is
pre-figured.... It has no actuality, but follows real life only at a
distance. Its value exists only for itself, for the thought structure
as such, not for life (Hartmann, 1967). Intepretations of Ethical RelativismThere
are two basic kinds of ethical relativism: subjective ethical
relativism and conventional (or cultural) ethical relativism. Subjective
ethical relativism is of the view that truth of moral principles is
relative to individuals. Conventional ethical relativism states that
truth of moral principles is relative to cultures. According
to subjective ethical relativism, whatever you think is right for you
really is right for you, and no one can tell you any differently.
What
is right for you is completely up to you to decide. You are
sovereign
over the principles that can tell you how to live your life. According
to conventional ethical relativism what is right for you as an
individual depends upon what your culture thinks is right for you.
What your culture says is right for you really is right for you.
The
culture or society is the highest authority about what is right for
individuals living within that society. On this view, an
individual's
will is subordinated to the will of the cultural majority (Beeb, 2003). WHY ETHICAL RELATIVISM IS A GOOD POINT OF VIEW FOR MEDIA COMPARED TO ETHICAL OBJECTIVISMThe
argument from cultural diversity seeks to support conventional
relativism by appealing to empirical facts about the wide variety of
cultural practices around the globe. The
argument goes like this: Centuries ago, when cultures were relatively
isolated and little information was known about distant lands, it might
have been reasonable to think that the traditions and practices of
one's own culture represented the only right way of doing things.
But
now we know that each of our conventions and norms reflects only one
out of an endless number of possibilities and that other cultures have
opted for other ways of doing things. In this modern age of
worldwide
communication and information it is no longer reasonable to view the
practices of one's own culture as being the only correct cultural
practices (Beeb, 2003). Africa,
and more specifically Kenya, is a land of multiple cultures hence
multiple beliefs and multiple worldviews. The land called Kenya has
been influenced by successive waves of African groups migrating from
the North, West and Southern parts of Africa all bringing with them
their own beliefs. The Kenyan coastal region has been influenced by
Arabic culture and the Islamic religion. The Europeans had also brought
with them their own cultural systems through colonialism. After
independence, the influences of other world cultures continue to mold
us via the forces of globalization. The multinational company, Coca
Cola's advertisements featuring South Pacific cultural traits is a case
in point (The Bamboocha!
campaign). In the coming years, China's development as major force in
international commerce will, without doubt, spread aspects of Oriental
culture in our direction. Already the China Central Television (CCTV)
is broadcasting in Kenya using existing television stations. China
Radio International (CRI) has a transmitting station in Nairobi and has
partnered with the University of Nairobi in airing Chinese language
instructional programs. That
said, Africa's cultural diversity has a corresponding effect in the
application of media ethics. Journalists in Africa should take
cognizance of the social norms and ethical parameters applicable in
their society before they start talking about journalism ethics.
Pictures taken of naked Swazi girls performing a reed dance for their
King maybe considered obscene in Kenya but not in Swaziland where the
reed dance is such a prestigious event that every Swazi girl wishes to
join (Kasoma, 1994). Journalism
ethics in Africa, the little that exist, is still based on the ideas of
the Europeans who introduced journalism during the colonial era though
these ideas have now been modified a little by American influence.
There is nothing to be ashamed about this but when Africa assimilated
these ethics, little was done to adapt to the African situation
(Kasoma, 1994). Every
society is characterized by social values. It is these social values
that predispose journalists to act in a certain manner under certain
conditions. Social values are founded in people's culture and culture
sets the boundaries of what the media can do and with what effects.
Society determines what is decent or indecent and not
journalists.
Journalistic codes help to determine what is indecent in African
reporting. These codes reflect the socio-political and cultural values
and problems of the societies where they obtain (Okigbo, 1994). In
the East African region, Kenya is said to practice a more conservative
style of media coverage compared to Uganda. The Ugandan daily, Red
Pepper
long shifted the limit of what is considered as acceptable in the
media. Pictures of young women in revealing postures and stories of
scandal among the mighty and lowly alike feature in the Red Pepper's
pages. Uganda's leading daily The New Vision
has adopted a somewhat similar style which however is restricted to
sections of the paper. Ugandan radio stations led the region in
unrestricted discussion in talk shows. Listeners call talking about
every sort of personal problem and seeking advice. Ugandan media has
reported and, indeed, conducted on-air interviews with rebel leaders,
the President and military commanders. The leader of the Lord's
Resistance Army, Joseph Kony has been known to call FM stations using
satellite mobile phones in order to give his version of events. Kenya's
style of media coverage is focused mostly on
politics and economics and this is reflected in the Uganda daily, The
Monitor, which is owned by Kenya's Nation Media Group. Like The
Monitor,
the Nation Media Group's other publications in Kenya
such as the Nation and EastAfrican reflect a
business-like editorial policy. A rival publication, The East African
Standard, occasionally attempts to push the decency envelope but
without much success. The Kenya Times and People Daily are as
business-minded as the Nation, EastAfrican and The East African
Standard. The
reason for Kenyan print media being conservative is that their
clientele consists mostly of the post independence generation of
business and professional elite who took over from departing
colonialists and whose beliefs and attitudes were shaped by European
missionary education of the time. However, the electronic media in
Kenya is increasingly getting more liberal largely because of its
youthful audience. Mexican soap operas and uncensored radio talk shows
are gaining large audiences across the country but mostly in urban
areas. To
think that your culture's way of doing things is the only right way or
the best way to do things reflects an extreme ignorance of the wide
cultural diversity that has always existed in the world. The
anthropological study of foreign lands has opened our eyes and set us
free from any closed-minded adherence to the parochial standards of our
own culture. Faced with the tremendous cultural diversity the
world
offers, it is simply not reasonable to think that one set of cultural
practices can be the one and only right set. Hence, we must
conclude
that all cultural practices are equally valid (Beeb, 2003). Because
conventional relativists maintain that all cultures are equally valid
and that no culture is any better than any other, they claim their
position avoids any kind of ethnocentrism. Because ethnocentrism is a
pernicious form of discrimination, the apparent fact that conventional
relativism avoids it and moral absolutism seems to fall into it is a
reason for choosing conventional relativism over moral absolutism. Ethnocentrism, roughly, is judging another culture through the eyes of your own culture and not trying to see things from their perspective. This almost inevitably leads to thinking that your culture is superior to others. Most people today agree that ethnocentrism belongs in the same category with racism, sexism and other unacceptable forms of discrimination. To be racist is to think that, simply because someone belongs to a different ethnic group, that person is inferior. To be sexist is to think that, simply because someone is a member of the opposite sex, that person is inferior. All forms of bigotry and prejudice involve judging other people solely on the basis of their group membership. Ethnocentrism is not any different. Instead of looking down on other races or sexes, the ethnocentric person looks down on and devalues other cultures (Beeb, 2003).
Media
that has chosen ethnocentrism has invariably contributed to clash of
cultures within Africa. The best-known examples is that of the Rwanda
genocide where extremists from the Hutu community incited their kinsmen
to hunt down and kill all members of the rival Tutsi community. The
Tutsi, being a minority, had been favored by the former Belgian
colonizers. After independence, the Hutu majority assumed power in
Rwanda but never felt comfortable with the Tutsi. The Tutsi people had,
before colonialism been relatively more prosperous and this continued
after independence. A Tutsi-led rebellion that began in 1990 didn't
help the situation either and the Hutu leadership devised plans to
annihilate Tutsis once and for all. Some
of the privately owned media aligned themselves to
the Hutu cause. The most notorious of them was the Radio Libre des
milles
Collines,
which roughly translates as "Radio to free the thousand hills of
Rwanda." The station exhorted its listeners to "rid the home of
cockroaches" and to "fight the enemy lurking within." No mention was
ever made of the word Tutsi but everyone within Rwanda's sociopolitical
context understood the concealed meaning. If
we were to try to make judgments about the rightness or wrongness of
the practices of some other culture, our thoughts would inevitably
reflect the beliefs and values of our own culture. If culture A's
practices are different from culture B's, how is a person from culture
A going to assess the practices of culture B? If that person were
to
rely upon the standards of culture A, the practices of culture B would
obviously be viewed as wrong because they deviate from what culture A's
standards say are right. Of course, if you were to ask someone
from
culture B about culture A, we would get the same result in the opposite
direction. If
we were somehow able to throw off all of the cultural baggage we have
inherited from our social environments and to break free from all of
the cultural conditioning that has shaped our minds, our emotions and
our personalities, we might then be able to formulate a completely
neutral and objective assessment of some other culture. However,
conventional relativists claim, this is not a realistic human
possibility. We can never get beyond the cultural conditioning
that
has shaped us and our views of morality. Therefore, any time we
try to
sit in judgment on other cultures, our judgments will simply reflect
the values of our own societies. Since this is the fundamental
human
condition, there is no reason to think that the judgments any person
makes about some other culture will have any objective validity or
truth (Beeb, 2003). The
coverage of Islam and Islamic countries, such as those in the Middle
East, has been a source of massive controversy in world media.
Journalists from outside the Middle East and who are not Muslims view
the area as backward and prone to violence. The culture of Islamic
societies likewise is seen as primitive as regards modes of dressing,
interaction between the sexes and the role of religion in secular life. A
cartoon published in a Danish newspaper recently caused widespread
protests in the Muslim world by associating the religion with
terrorism. Coming from a secular culture, the cartoonist and his editor
in Denmark honestly could not understand what the problem was about.
Isn't everyone entitled to free speech? To Muslims, however, secularism
is secondary to religion and they could not understand why one would
mock religion unless there was malice involved. In this case, cultural
insensitivity on the part of the cartoonist resulted in violence, loss
of lives and destruction of property. For
those who do not want to bring religion into the debate, the question
of moral relativism remains challenging. There are just as many
different secular opinions about what is right or wrong as there are
religious opinions. In science we can rely upon experimental
methods
and empirical observations to resolve differences of opinion. But
what
can we use to resolve ethical disagreements? There do not seem to
be
any experiments we can run or empirical observations we can make that
could show some ethical judgments or principles to be the right ones.
In ethics there seems to be no way to prove some answers right
and
other answers wrong. Since
none of us seems to have any privileged access to the absolute truth
about morality, conventional relativists urge us to stop treating our
own ethical opinions as infallible or indubitable. Every culture
has
its own view of morality. Since we have no way to prove that some
views are better than others, we should simply treat them all as being
equally valid or correct (Beeb, 2003). CONCLUSIONIn
a world of interconnection where space is no longer a barrier to
communication and in a world where transport across the world is
affordable even the village newsletter can find itself in the opposite
corner of the world. Thus it should be borne in mind that any
communicative action could find an audience far away and different from
whom it was originally intended. Ask the cartoonist from Denmark whose
work infuriated the entire Muslim world. Cultural sensitivity is a key
component of the modern communication process. Its
not just the fear of creating offense that should be the propulsion
behind instituting intercultural sensitivity in media. The fact that
society is multicultural calls for the creation of understanding among
peoples in order to minimize potential conflagration. This is where the
media goal of education (in addition to information and entertainment)
becomes relevant. The
people of Africa want and should know how other human beings live in
Europe. The American should be compelled to watch programs made in
Africa by Africans so as to understand the decisions that Africans make
and which puzzle outsiders. For instance, among communities that
practice female circumcision, the rite is viewed as prestigious rather
than barbaric. This will enhance knowledge so that Africans stepping
off the aircraft at Heathrow in London are not viewed as having
encountered civilization for the first time. Closer
home, there are lots of myths concerning the various communities in
Kenya. The Luo are fisher folk but there's much more to Luo culture
than fishing. The Kikuyu are renowned for cunning capitalism but this
is not a universal trait among them. The amorous exploits of the Kamba
are well remarked but how many Kenyans know that the Kamba participated
in international commerce long before the Kikuyu? These are the stories
that the media should bring into the public domain when journalists set
aside ethnocentrism and adopt cultural relativism. The
media in this interconnected world is just as powerful as the military,
indeed in many cases, the media can drive military action. By virtue of
the west dominating the global media industry, therefore all or most
global events are viewed from a western perspective. This has caused
misunderstanding in, among many places, Darfur and Somalia. In
Somalia, the international media have ignored local inter-clan
rivalries and turned the civil war in the country into an extension of
the United States-led war on terrorism. For failing to provide a proper
context of events in Somalia, the western media routinely gives the
impression that Somalia is similar to Afghanistan, a country whose
history is vastly different from that of Somalia. Consequently, the
American military is now involved in Somalia under the cover of
Ethiopia's deployment of troops to that country. The
same problem of evaluating events using one's own cultural lens is
behind the problems being experienced by the people of Darfur. What
started as a local conflict involving nomadic tribes and rebels has
assumed global dimensions after international journalists termed it as
genocide. Without doubt, thousands of people have been killed but no
proper studies have been done to find who exactly is fighting the
other. The western media has sided with the rebels, who it turns out,
are renegade ex-government soldiers. More ironical is that the Sudanese
Arabs accused of genocide are much darker in complexion than their
victims. The Darfur issue is thus fuelled by the Western media's
negative attitude against anything Arabic or Islamic. By virtue of collectively possessing so much power to influence in one way or the other the entire human race, then it is imperative that journalists learn about as many cultures as possible and consciously make the decision to dismantle mental prejudices. In this way, the collection of news and features for dissemination to the world can be done objectively. And
the decisions made from such objective, balanced
information are likely to be well thought out and humane. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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This term paper was largely prepared using the following Free and Open Source Software (FOSS): AbiWord word processor Vector Linux operating system |
