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Educational Programmes in Kenyan media.

Ethical Relativity and Journalism.

History of Kenyan print media as a struggle of forces.

Public broadcasting in Kenya.

Traditional communication channels and Kenyan society >

Saddam Hussein's trial as media performance.

Drama performance by students from a Kenyan college.

THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATION CHANNELS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KENYAN SOCIETY

Traditional communication channels in Africa

Long before the coming of the European colonizers and their modes of communication based on pens, papers, mechanics and electronics, the African peoples living in what is now Kenya were communicating among and with each other utilizing methods that had been time-tested and handed down from generation to generation for millennia.

The main medium of communication was the oral form and was supplemented by secondary media of communication such as dressing styles, dance, gestures, symbols, architecture and so on. The oral tradition is the whole of all testimony types verbally transmitted by a people on their past (Sall, 1999).In order for the oral forms to function, language has to exist as the means of learning and transmission of a culture and is further used to define and distinguish different ethnic groups and cultures (Agatucci, 2006).

The content of the oral tradition of the African peoples living in Kenya is characterized by immense diversity that includes tales and fables, myths, epics, proverbs and riddles as well as songs and legends. Quite often, these features of African oral communication are intertwined, for instance, a story teller may sing part of the story and at the same time emphasize important lessons with proverbs. The story may have begun with a riddle. In certain circumstances, oral forms of communication were enshrined in mysterious rituals practiced by persons specially trained for the task from an early age.

Oral story telling among African peoples is a communal participatory experience. Everyone in most traditional societies participates in formal and informal story telling as interactive oral performance. Such participation is an essential part of traditional African communal life and basic training in a particular culture's oral arts and skills is an essential part of children's indigenous education on their way to initiation into full humanness (Agatucci, 2006).

The tale is the most obvious constituent of oral story telling. It is an imaginary adventure narration that is popular, that is, created by and for the people. It is born and lives the collaboration between the listener and the story teller respectful of ideology and culture. Traditionally, it is orally transmitted from generation to generation. A story closely depends on the culture and the people's physical geography that produced it. The tale is generally told to children by old people usually at dusk after the day's tasks are done. The fable does not differ from the tale by being imaginary but is intended to illustrate a precept. The narration of the fable is often short and comical. The myth, another story form, is a long narration that is an object of strong belief for the people that produce it. The difference between myths and tales lies in the degree in which reality is infused into the story with tales tending to be more realistic than myths. The epic or epic narration relates the exploits of a hero who actually existed and who played a major role in a people's ethnic history, for instance, Ramogi among the Luo. Genealogies are the detailed history of a people (Sall, 1999).

A proverb is a vivid truth to which the story often acts to illustrate. Proverbs are, as a rule, told by elders who use it to color their speech as a sign of wisdom. Riddles and enigmas are word games between grandparents and children and are still practiced in schools today. Riddles were usually told in the evening before a story telling session. Each ethnic group in Kenya has a large store of riddles, proverbs and sayings which are still an important aspect of daily speech. Riddles are not just a form of entertainment; they play an important role in the social and cultural education of children. Riddles are useful tools in the children's cognitive development.

Songs occupy an important place in the index of the African oral tradition. Some definitions of the song describe it as “the adornment” of the verb. Songs intervene in all moments of life, especially during ritual ceremonies such as planting, circumcision and funerals. Through the song, ethnologists have been able to decipher historical and social events in a community's history (Sall, 1999).

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The society of Kenya

Kenya as a state did not exist before 1920. Prior to that, the land now called Kenya had been a British protectorate since the late 19th century mainly because the main access routes to the Buganda Kingdom passed through the land. At the time, Buganda was strategic since it lay on the source of the Nile at Lake Victoria. The land area between Buganda and the Indian Ocean assumed greater strategic importance with the building of the railway line from Mombasa to Port Florence (now Kisumu and administered as part of Uganda at the time).

The population of Kenya at the turn of the 20th century consisted of disparate tribes scattered in hills across the country. The feared Maasai ruled the plains all the way from the Coast, to the Rift Valley and upto Mt Elgon. Each tribe had its language, culture, economic system and governance. The Maasai lived on cattle husbandry and the community's ideology was based on this. Bantu tribes such as the Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru, Mijikenda, Taita and Kisii practiced subsistence farming. The Kalenjin, though having the same Nilo-Hamitic origins as the Maasai, opted for crop farming. The Luo settled on the wetlands around Lake Victoria and thrived on fishing and cattle husbandry. The Somali, Rendille, Oromo and Turkana competed for pasture in the northern drylands of Kenya. Though each tribe had its culture and ideology, there did exist a significant amount of peaceful interaction through intermarriage and trade.

With the exception of the Arab dominated coastal strip, the interior of Kenya did not have any form of centralized administration prior to the coming of the British. Each village had a council of elders to maintain law and order as well as being custodian of the community's culture. A few communities had began a loose governance system revolving around a paramount chief, for instance, Lenana of the Maasai and Nabongo Mumia of Wanga.

With the inception of the Kenyan colonial state, over 42 ethnic groups each with an independent culture and world view found themselves administered from one centre in Nairobi. All had to subject themselves to new laws, new systems of justice and new loyalties to a distant monarch. They were made to abandon their lifestyles, adorn foreign attire and work for wages. Western education was introduced but more importantly, a new religion - Christianity - became obligatory. Henceforth, parents could not name their babies in the traditional manner. There emerged resistance against colonialism in the attempt to restore the ancient ways. By independence in 1963, it was obvious that the traditional way of life was lost forever, at least for most Kenyan communities.

There exists skepticism as to whether the numerous ethnic groups found in Kenya could possibly unite into one society or whether there lies a potential for conflagration that could fragment the country. By virtue of having lived together forcibly, the people of Kenya can be said to have formed a unique Kenyan society in spite of ethnic diversity. Character traits peculiar to Kenyans are not observable among Ugandans and Tanzanians even though several ethnic groups such as the Luhya and the Maasai spread across borders. Kenyans are known to value westernization to a greater degree compared to citizens of neighboring countries. Kenyan entrepreneurship and thirst for higher education is well known in the region. It's a fact that Kenya is among the few countries in Africa where locals and foreigners work peacefully together. Kenyans, though aggressive, frown on civil discord and despite the chaotic nature of the country's politics, peace and stability has been maintained. Its no wonder that Kenyans hardly relate well with South Africans and Nigerians who consider themselves the rightful leaders in Africa by virtue of wealth (South Africa) and sheer human mass (Nigeria).

“Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior which marks them off from others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in behavior.”

- Morris Ginsberg

“Society is the total complex of human relationships is so far as they grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic or symbolic.”

- Talcott Pearsons

The society of Kenya has developed its own unique structures to cope with the environment and to ensure the survival of individuals. Of course formal societal structures such as families, clans, the government and courts are alive and continue to play their respective functions. However, specific behaviors in Kenya have become institutionalized informally. “Matatuism” is the unashamedly “me first!” mentality that puts personal interests ahead of the public good. Solicitation for gifts has permeated many sectors of society and has found its way into interpersonal relationships. Crime patterns have made Kenyans to react by building towering fences and steel gates; Kenyans have become innured to identifying themselves at every office building. Kenyans are envied by westerners because almost every Kenyan family employs a maid. The driving habits of Kenyans are notorious worldwide … ad infinitum.

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African traditional communication channels and the society of Kenya

Traditionally, people across Africa have revered good stories and story tellers, as have most past and present peoples around the world who are rooted in oral cultures and traditions. Ancient writing traditions are present on the African continent, contrary to colonialist teachings, but most Africans today, as in the past, are primarily oral peoples, and our art forms (means of expression) are oral rather than literary. In contrast to written literature, oral works are often created to be verbally and communally performed as an integral part of dance and music. The oral arts developed with the beginnings of African cultures and they remain living traditions that continue to evolve and flourish today.

African stories and sayings draw upon the collective wisdom of oral peoples, express structures of meaning, feeling and thought thus serving important social and ethical purposes. The story, in all its manifestations, is a primary form of the oral tradition, primary as a mode of conveying culture, experience and values and as a means of transmitting knowledge, wisdom, feelings and attitudes in oral societies (Agatucci, 2006). These characteristics of the oral tradition have influenced the way African writers such as Ngugi wa Thiong'o select the social themes that interweave their literary works. The imaginative work offers a more concrete, more intricate understanding than any other mode of a society's response and the impact  on human relations and on community life (Chapman, 2006).

The oral traditions of African society always have a didactic value. Indeed, from the tale, to the myth, proverbs and riddles and even epic narrations, there is always a teaching to pull, a value to instill in the child. Themes of instruction are provided within the tale and the proverb. The symbolic meaning coming from these two types is used at several levels: the knowledge of nature, morals and social behavior. The Swahili people have a proverb that goes, “Mwacha mila ni mtumwa,” which when translated compares an individual who abandons ancestral culture to a slave. The Swahili people thrived at a time when the slave trade between Africa and Arabia was booming and there must have been widespread awareness as to the fate of enslaved peoples. Using such imagery to warn against abandoning or undermining the community's cultural values would have been very effective. The proverb itself (among many others) is still widely used among Kenyan society to warn against excessive adoption of alien cultural values such as homosexuality.

Heroes in tales put in evidence a system of values and represent either virtues that lead them to social success or shortcomings that make them fall in their plans. The Bukusu community of Western Kenya tells of how the tribe's name came to be. A young man was herding the family cattle many many years ago. One day, in the bush, he was confronted by Maasai moran who wanted to, as expected, take the cattle. The young man, rather than flee, opted to resist the moran. Surprised, the moran challenged the young herder to a fight with their strongest warrior. The herder fought brave and hard and though he lost the fight, so impressed were the moran that they nicknamed him “bukusu” and let him keep the cattle. Henceforth, the tribe became known as the “people of bukusu.”

The Luo community residing on the shores of Lake Victoria have a story about a poor fisherman who helped out a very sickly woman who was a lake goddess in disguise. In gratitude, the goddess left the lake with all her property to become wife to the poor fisherman. The fisherman became very popular owing to his new found wealthy status and started neglecting and abusing his wife. One day, the former lake goddess, fed up with mistreatment, gathered everything she had ever given the fisherman and disappeared into the lake with it. The moral of the story is to treat people equally regardless of first impressions and to be grateful for life's gifts.

African traditional tales often put on stage animals each of which represents qualities that one wants to instill in children. Secular tricksters like the tortoise project the kinds of evil forces and bad behaviors against which the human community must contend to survive and which must be kept in check. This goal is rehearsed and achieved in communal performances of African proverbs and folktales, wherein the trickster's bad anti-social behaviors are usually punished and the evil forces unleashed are controlled and defeated. Thus, for example, recounting tortoise stories in African communities can function to reaffirm the priority and wisdom of the community, reassure its members that balance and harmony can and should be restored and that the community will survive and prevail. Naming people after animals plays a functional role in attempting to instill the desired values in society, for instance, Nyaga (Kikuyu, Embu - Ostrich), Omuga (Luo - rhino) and Mwashimba (Taita - lion).

Riddles play an important role in the mental development of the child. Riddles are a form of intelligence test but also teach rules of behavior, explain and interpret natural phenomena and are a socially sanctioned avenue for questioning social taboos and restricted subjects. In the educational role, riddles provide a safe avenue for transmitting restricted information as well as intimate and vital knowledge. An expert in riddling would acquire social respect.

Epic narrations tend to be long and fascinating, punctuated by song. This persistent reminder of the actions of the hero raises a people's history and instills in the community members from an early age notions of courage and devotion to the community (Sall, 1999 & Agatucci, 2006). The Luo attribute their arrival in the lands around Lake Victoria to an epic figure called Ramogi. Kenya's second vice-president, the late Jaramogi Oginga Odinga had his first name derived from “Ramogi” because he wanted to adopt the values and principles of the epic Ramogi. Incidentally, Jaramogi was the de-facto leader of the Luo because he represented the community's aspirations for national leadership.

Modern society [in Kenya as] in much of Africa is characterized by: scientific development, real technological progress and new attitudes, the desire to search, to go beyond one's capacities, to innovate, and the taste for pure intelligence. The invention of modern communication information means such as television, radio and telephone combined with up to date teaching methods has considerably changed past habits and is further facilitated by rural depopulation. Individualism rages in the urban areas and is not at all in favor of transmission of the values taught in the oral forms. Migration from rural areas has really modified the ancient order. The modern [Kenyan] child prefers to play with a computer at home, at the library or at school rather than trying to get the hidden messages of a quavered voice, broken by years of living and seeing. The cohabitation between modern and traditional cultures is becoming more and more unlikely, the first having prevailed over the second (Sall, 1999).

The spirit of the African traditional channel is not doomed to be completely annihilated, at least not yet. Kenya is witnessing a revival of the traditional arts, albeit in a modernized form. Traditional dance rhythms of “Mugithi” and “Ohangla” have been captured on digital disc for worldwide distribution. Kenyan youth are blending old and new and coming up with unique Kenyan beats, dubbed “local flava.” So popular have these traditional and quasi-traditional blends become that artists like Nonini, Redsan, Nameless, Tony Nyadundo and Mike Ruwa have become much sought after celebrities.

Just as in the days of yore, song and dance is used to deliver stories and lessons. Princess Jully's “Dunia Mbaya” warns of the dangers of HIV/Aids as do the Longomba's “Vuta Pumzi.” Songs have been crafted in praise of politicians and political parties. After independence, the song “Kanu yajenga nchi” was adopted on national radio and remained a signature tune for news briefs until the introduction of multi-party politics. The song was in praise of the Kenya African National Union (KANU) which prior to 1992 was the only legally recognized political party. In the 1960s, the late Daudi Kabaka made a popular tune, “Harambee, harambee; tujenge nchi,” at a very hopeful time following independence from colonialism. During the presidency of Daniel arap Moi, songs such as “Tawala Kenya” and “Fimbo ya Nyayo” were composed and played on national radio to affirm his leadership.

An interesting phenomenon catalyzed by digitalization of information communication technology is the community radio. The expensive radio stations and broadcasting technology of the 20th century have been reduced and miniaturized considerably. A modern desktop computer with appropriate software combined with new transmission technology makes quality FM stations for larger communities possible without a large capital investment. Radio has assumed a higher profile as it is affordable compared to television and copies of daily newspapers. The resurrection of the radio as a result of modern technology and economies of transmission allows for the taking up and preservation of verbal memory and the art of narration (Freier et al, 2000).

Development communicators as well as commercial advertisers have realized that community radio is of vital importance in reaching the people. Programs on agriculture and livestock can be heard on Radio Citizen and the Kenya Broadcasting Corporation. Kameme FM, among others, has political call-in shows that allow listeners to debate on topical issues. Ramogi FM has a session where the Luo Council of Elders answers questions on the culture of the community as it pertains to day to day living.

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